A GUIDE TO THE SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE OF THINGS FAMILIAR

'''A Guide to the Scientific Knowledge of Things Familiar''', also known as '''The Guide to Science''' or '''Dr. Brewer's Guide to Science''', is a book by Ebenezer Cobham Brewer presenting scientific explanations for common phenomena of life.^[1]
First published in the United Kingdom in or around 1838, the success of the small volume was almost unparalleled,^[2] with over 319,000 copies and 47 editions being printed by 1905 in English alone.^[3]
The popularity of ''The Guide to Science'' enabled Brewer to gather material for his ''Dictionary of Phrase and Fable''. While the latest editions of this latter book remain a classic reference work,^[4] ''The Guide to Science'' itself has interest today only for the insight it provides into everyday scientific understanding during the mid-19th century.

Contents

History

Content

Accuracy

Caloric theory

Electrical fluid

Luminiferous aether

Surface tension

Religion

God's wisdom

Explanation of the Bible

Old wives' tales

Magpies

Red sky at night

Toast for the sick

Reception

See also

References

Bibliography

External links

History

''The Guide to Science'' had its origin in a habit of The Reverend Doctor Ebenezer Cobham Brewer to enter into a book questions which he could not answer for himself. This book was set out in a question-and-answer style with a space being left for answers when they were obtained. Brewer bound his book into a volume and, disregarding advice from one man of science to burn it, sought to have it published. His initial offer to the publisher to sell the copyright for 50 pounds was rejected. Instead, the publisher agreed to publish the book at his own risk and under a profit sharing arrangement. The ultimate success of the book meant that this arrangement proved to be very profitable for both Brewer and his publisher.^[5]
The exact date of the book's first publication is uncertain, with some sources suggesting 1838^[6] while others put the year at 1841.³ Brewer himself said that the first publication was in 1840.³ A second UK edition of the book was published in 1848^[7] and 45 further editions were published over the next 57 years, including a 4th edition in 1849,⁶ an 11th edition in 1857,⁶ a 22nd edition in 1866,^6[8] a 38th edition in 1880,^[9] and, finally, a 47th edition in 1905.³ In all, over 319,000 copies of the UK editions of the book were sold³ - an almost unparalleled achievement at the time.²
The popularity of the book in the UK led to further publications around the world. Two different translations of the book into French were made and these translations were themselves translated and adapted into Swedish in 1858 and 1890. Further translations were made into Spanish in 1858 and Portuguese in 1900.⁶ In 1864 a revised version was published in the US.^[10] This edition was digitised and republished as part of the University of Michigan Library's preservation program in September 2006,^[11] thus making the work available to the public again for the first time in over 100 years.

Content

The object of ''The Guide to Science'' was to present answers to over 2000 questions about common phenomena.² As a consequence, much of the book deals with explanations for questions the author had upon observing the world around him. In particular, there are questions dealing with the operation and effects of candles, stoves, chimneys and other important objects in everyday 19th century life as well as answers seeking to explain natural phenomena such as thunder and lightning (including a mention of ball lightning^[9]), clouds, dew and rainbows.
Brewer also intended that his book should be intelligible to a child, since children might often ask the questions he was seeking to answer, but without being so foolish as to offend the scientific.² These conflicting goals are met by including straightforward and often answers to an initial question and then providing further or more detailed information in subsequent questions.
The book is separated into two or three parts, depending upon the edition, each part having several chapters. ''Part one'' deals with questions relating to heat such as the sources of heat and its effects on humans and animals, while ''Part two'' deals with questions relating to air, explaining why metal rusts in air, the operation of barometers and the transmission of sound. A ''Miscellaneous'' section^[13] deals with several more nebulous questions, including questions about sleep and dreaming. Perhaps for reasons of prudishness, however, the book does not deal with human biology and the most tricky of questions, "where do babies come from?", remains unanswered.
Within each part, the different chapters break the questions and answers up into various areas. However, these chapters and the questions within them are not in any particular logical order, as an encyclopaedia, but are rather gathered thematically.

Accuracy

To secure the strictest accuracy in the answers provided by ''The Guide to Science'', Brewer consulted "the most approved modern authors" and submitted additions to "the revision of gentlemen of acknowledged reputation for scientific attainments". As a consequence, Brewer felt sufficiently certain of the correctness of the answers provided in his book that he announced, for the benefit of teachers, that "no alteration of the text will be made in future editions".² Nevertheless, changes in scientific understanding since the 19th century have shown a number of his answers and explanations to be false, or at least based on over-simplified reasoning.

Caloric theory

A recurring theme of Brewer's answers when discussing issues of heat is that of the now obsolete theory of caloric heat flow. This theory proposed that heat consists of a fluid called "caloric" that flows from hotter to colder bodies and is put forward at the very beginning of ''The Guide to Science'':^[9]
:Q. ''What is HEAT?''
:A. That which produces the sensation of warmth.
:Q. ''How is this sensation produced?''
:A. Simply by an exchange of temperature with some substance warmer than ourselves.
:Q. ''What is the "stream of heat" from the warmer to the colder substance called?''
:A. CALORIC. ''Caloric'', therefore, is the ''agent'' which produces the ''sensation of warmth''.

Electrical fluid

''The Guide to Science'' also supports the now obsolete fluid theory of electricity. This theory originally proposed that there were two kinds of electric charge, one caused by an abundance of the ''vitreous'' (or positive) fluid, and the other caused by an abundance of the ''resinous'' (or negative) fluid. Michael Faraday subsequently showed that there was actually only a single kind of electricity appearing in opposite polarities and Benjamin Franklin developed the single fluid theory of electricity as a consequence. Brewer addresses these developments in scientific understanding as follows:^[9]
:Q. ''Why is VITREOUS electricity so called?''
:A. Because it was first procured by rubbing glass.
:Q. ''Why is RESINOUS electricity so called?''
:A. Because it was first procured by rubbing resinous substances.
:Q. ''Are there any other names by which the vitreous and resinous electricities are also known?''
:A. They are sometimes called positive and negative electricities.
:Q. ''Why were the terms "positive" and "negative" employed to express conditions of electricity?''
:A. Because the early electricians conceived that there were not two ''kinds'', but only two ''states'' of electricity; the one marked by a superabundance, and the other by a deficiency, of one and the same fluid.

Luminiferous aether

In classical physics, a luminiferous aether was proposed as a medium by which light was propagated. This theory of light propagation is now considered obsolete, but was the best theory known to Brewer when putting together ''The Guide to Science'':^[9]
:Q. ''What is LIGHT?''
:A. The unknown cause of VISIBILITY
:The most commonly received theory of light is this. A fluid, called the luminous ''ether'', fills up the intervening spaces between the several particles of air. This fluid being set in motion, either by some chemical change, by friction, or by some other means, is thrown into a state of ''undulation''; and these undulations of ether striking on the optic nerve, make the eye sensible of ''light'', in much the same way as undulations of ''air'' striking on the drum of the ear give us the sensation of sound.

Surface tension

Some questions and answers in ''The Guide to Science'' indicate a lack of understanding of the principles of surface tension in fluids such as water:^[9]
:Q. ''Why do the BUBBLES in a CUP of TEA range around the SIDES of the CUP?''
:A. Because the cup ''attracts'' them.
:Q. ''Why do all the LITTLE BUBBLES tend towards the LARGE ones?''
:A. Because the large bubbles (being the superior masses) ''attract them''.
:Q. ''Why do all fruits, &c. (when severed from the tree) FALL to the EARTH?''
:A. Because the earth ''attracts them''.
Taken together, this sequence of questions and answers would seem to imply that the force of gravity that pulls objects down to the earth is also the cause of bubbles gathering together. Such gathering is instead caused by the effects of surface tension, as with soap bubbles or the Cheerio effect.

Religion

Brewer was ordained a deacon in 1836 and a priest in 1838^[9] and religion features regularly in ''The Guide to Science''.

God's wisdom

Frequent references are made in ''The Guide to Science'' to the wisdom and goodness of God and how this is illustrated in the natural world. The fact that air is a bad conductor of heat^[9] and that ice is lighter than water^[9] are put down to God's wisdom in ensuring a properly functioning world. This is an example of ''divine providence'' and its use to explain natural phenomena is at odds with the scientific method.
Although most of the unusual properties of water result from the hydrogen bond between neighbouring water molecules, Brewer provides a simpler explanation:^[9]
:Q. ''When does water begin to expand from cold?''
:A. When it is reduced to 40 degrees. It is wisely ordained by God that water shall be an exception to a very general rule, it contracts till it is reduced to 40 degrees, and then expands till it freezes.
Brewer also looks for the wisdom of God in the form of the birds and beasts. Concerning the advantages of clothing, for example, Brewer provides the following answers:^[9]
:Q. ''Why are beasts covered with FUR, HAIR, or WOOL?''
:A. Because fur, hair, and wool, are ''very slow'' conductors of heat; and (as dumb animals cannot be clad, like human beings) God has given them a robe of hair or wool, to keep them warm.
:Q. ''Show how the goodness of God is manifested, even in the clothing of BIRDS and BEASTS.''
:A. Small birds, which are the most ''delicate'', have a ''thicker'' covering of feathers, than those which are larger and more hardy: and beasts which live in the cold regions of the frigid zones have ''thicker'', ''coarser'', and ''warmer'' coats than those which dwell in the tropical heat.
Such explanations are in conflict with the theory of evolution and illustrate how commonly held 19th century beliefs concerning the nature of the world around us have changed radically. The initial publications of ''The Guide to Science'' were contemporaneous with Charles Darwin's study and development of the theory of evolution, but Darwin's work appears to have had little impact on Brewer's understanding of the world around him. The Origin of Species itself was first published in 1859, but receives no mention in the 1864 US edition or the 1880 38th edition of Brewer's book.

Explanation of the Bible

Brewer also seeks to explain the teachings of the Bible in scientific terms, such as explaining the comment in the 147th Psalm that "The Lord giveth snow like wool".^[9] Also provided is a full explanation of why Gideon's miracle, recounted in the Book of Judges, was in fact a miracle contrary to the normal laws of nature:^[9]
:Q. ''Shew the WISDOM of GOD in making polished metal and woollen cloth BAD RADIATORS of heat.''
:A. If polished metal collected dew as easily as grass, it could never be kept dry and ''free from rust''. Again, if woollen garments collected dew a readily as the leaves of trees, we should be often ''wet'', and subject to the risk of "taking cold".
:Q. ''Shew how this affords a beautiful illustration of GIDEON'S MIRACLE, recorded in the book of Judges, VI, 37, 38.''
:A. The ''fleece of wool'' (which is a very ''bad'' radiator of heat) was ''wet'' with dew: when the ''grass'' (which is a most excellent radiator) was quite ''dry''.
:Q. ''Was not this CONTRARY to the laws of nature?''
:A. Yes: and was, therefore, a plain demonstration of the ''power of God'', who could thus change the very ''nature'' of things at his will.

Old wives' tales

Some questions in the book address old wives' tales or proverbs and provide explanations of the reason for the efficacy of unquestioned habits or superstitions.

Magpies

Seeing a single magpie is considered to be unlucky and Brewer provides the following scientific explanation for this superstition:^[9]
:Q. ''The proverb says "A SINGLE MAGPIE in spring, FOUL WEATHER will bring;" Why is this the case?''
:A. Because in cold stormy weather, ''one magpie alone'' will leave its warm snug nest ''in search of food'', while the other stays with the ''eggs'', or ''young ones''; but in ''fine mild'' weather (when their brood will not be injured by the cold) ''both the magpies fly out together''

Red sky at night

Explanations about how observations of natural phenomena may permit predictions of future events are also provided, such as in the following series of questions and answers relating to the adage, "red sky at night, shepherd's delight":^[9]
:Q. ''What is the cause of a RED sunset?''
:A. The vapour of the air not being ''actually condensed into clouds'', but only on the ''point of being condensed''.
:Q. ''Why is a RED sunset an indication of a FINE DAY to-morrow?''
:A. Because the vapours of the earth are ''not condensed into clouds'', even by the cold of sunset. Our Lord referred to this prognostic in the following words: "When it is evening ye say it will be fair weather, for the sky is red." (Matt. xvi. 2)
:Q. ''Why do vapours (NOT actually condensed) refract RED rays...?''
:A. Because the beams of light meet with very little resistance; in consequence of which, those rays are bent down to the eye, which require the least refraction, such as ''red''.

Toast for the sick

In a section concerning charcoal Brewer offers the following series of questions and answers which ultimately explains the presumably once common habit of burning toast when it is being made for an ill person:^[9]
:Q. ''What is CHARCOAL?''
:A. Wood which has been exposed to a red heat, until it has been deprived of all its gases and volatile parts.
:Q. ''Why is WATER PURIFIED by being filtered through charcoal?''
:A. Because charcoal absorbs the ''impurities'' of water, and remove all disagreeable tastes and smells, whether they arise from animal or vegetable matter.
:Q. ''Why does a piece of BURNT BREAD make impure water more fit to drink?''
:A. Because the surface of the bread (which has been reduced to charcoal by being burnt) corrects the impurities of the water, and makes it palatable.
:Q. ''Why should TOAST and WATER, placed by the side of the sick, be made of BURNT bread?''
:A. Because the charcoal surface of burnt bread prevents the water from being affected by the impurities of a sick room.

Reception

A review of the second edition of ''The Guide to Science'' was published by ''Punch'' magazine in 1850.⁷ The book was seen to be a "very useful little work". However, in typical ''Punch'' satirical style, the reviewer disagreed with one answer that we "feel a desire for activity in cold weather" due to "fanning combustion in the blood" by instead insisting that we feel a desire "to sit cosily over a fire in cold weather".
The popularity of ''The Guide to Science'' led to Brewer being sent "a large number of questions on all imaginary matters". These questions and their answers became the nucleus of ''Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable'', first published in 1870.^[28] This latter work, in its various incarnations, has long outlived all of Brewer's other publications^[9] and continues to be revised and republished, with the paperback version of the 17th edition being published in March 2007.^[30]

See also

★ Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable

★ Ebenezer Cobham Brewer

References

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4. Comment by The Times Educational Supplement noted on the 1981 revised edition of Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable
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Bibliography

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External links

★ Peterson's Familiar Science, Or, The Scientific Explanation of Common Things - Based in part on E.C. Brewer's Guide to the scientific knowledge of things familiar.

★ Sound and its phenomena By Ebenezer Cobham Brewer