ACACIA

'''Acacia''' is a genus of shrubs and trees belonging to the subfamily Mimosoideae of the family Fabaceae, first described in Africa by the Swedish botanist Linnaeus in 1773.
Acacias are also known as 'thorntrees' or 'wattles', including the 'yellow-fever acacia' and 'umbrella acacias'.
There are roughly 1300 species of ''Acacia'' worldwide, about 960 of them native to Australia, with the remainder spread around the tropical to warm-temperate regions of both hemispheres, including Africa, southern Asia, and the Americas.

Contents

Classification

Geography

Description

Symbiosis

Pests

Uses

Food uses

Gum

Medicinal uses

Ornamental uses

Paints

Perfume

Symbolism and ritual

Tannin

Wood

Phytochemistry of Acacias

Alkaloids

List of Acacia Species Having Little or No Alkaloids in the Material Sampled:63

Cyanogenic glycosides

Species

Famous acacia

Identification gallery

Flowers

Bark

Foliage

Seed pods

Seeds

Thorns

Tree

Wood

See Also

References

Notes

General references

External links

Classification

The genus ''Acacia'' is apparently not monophyletic. This discovery has led to the breaking up of ''Acacia'' into five new genera as discussed in list of Acacia species.
In common parlance the term "acacia" is occasionally misapplied to species of the genus ''Robinia'', which also belongs in the pea family. ''Robinia pseudoacacia'', an American species locally known as 'Black locust', is sometimes called "false acacia" in cultivation in the United Kingdom.

Geography

The southernmost species in the genus are ''Acacia dealbata'' (Silver Wattle), ''Acacia longifolia'' (Coast Wattle or Sydney Golden pattle), ''Acacia mearnsii'' (Black Wattle), and ''Acacia melanoxylon'' (Blackwood), reaching 43°30' S in Tasmania, Australia, while ''Acacia caven'' (''Espinillo Negro'') reaches nearly as far south in northeastern Chubut Province of Argentina. Australian species are usually called 'wattles', while African and American species tend to be known as 'acacias'.
''Acacia albida'', ''Acacia tortilis'' and ''Acacia iraqensis'' can be found growing wild in the Sinai desert and the Jordan valley. It is found in the savanna vegetation of the tropical continental climate.

Description

The leaves of acacias are compound pinnate in general. In some species, however, more especially in the Australian and Pacific islands species, the leaflets are suppressed, and the leaf-stalks ('petioles') become vertically flattened, and serve the purpose of leaves. These are known as 'phyllodes'. The vertical orientation of the phyllodes protects them from intense sunlight, as with their edges towards the sky and earth they do not intercept light so fully as horizontally placed leaves. A few species (such as ''Acacia glaucoptera'') lack leaves or phyllodes altogether, but possess instead 'cladodes', modified leaf-like photosynthetic stems functioning as leaves.
The small flowers have five very small petals, almost hidden by the long stamens, and are arranged in dense globular or cylindrical clusters; they are yellow or cream-colored in most species, whitish in some, even purple (''Acacia purpureapetala'') or red (''Acacia leprosa'' 'Scarlet Blaze').
The plants often bear spines, especially those species growing in arid regions. These sometimes represent branches which have become short, hard and pungent, or sometimes leaf-stipules. ''Acacia armata'' is the Kangaroo-thorn of Australia and ''Acacia erioloba'' is the Camelthorn of Africa.

Symbiosis

In the Central American ''Acacia sphaerocephala'', ''Acacia cornigera'', and ''Acacia collinsii'' (collectively known as the ''bullthorn acacias''), the large thorn-like stipules are hollow and afford shelter for ants, which feed on a secretion of sap on the leaf-stalk and small, lipid-rich food-bodies at the tips of the leaflets called Beltian bodies; in return they usually protect the plant against herbivores. Some species of ants will also trim competing plants around the acacia, while other ant species will do nothing to benefit their host.

Pests

In Australia, ''Acacia'' species are sometimes used as food plants by the larvae of hepialid moths of the genus ''Aenetus'' including ''A. ligniveren''. These burrow horizontally into the trunk then vertically down. Other Lepidoptera larvae which have been recorded feeding on ''Acacia'' include Brown-tail, ''Endoclita malabaricus'' and Turnip Moth. The leaf-mining larvae of some bucculatricid moths also feed on ''Acacia'': ''Bucculatrix agilis'' feeds exclusively on ''Acacia horrida'' and ''Bucculatrix flexuosa'' feeds exclusively on ''Acacia nilotica''.
Acacias contain a number of organic compounds that defend them from pests and grazing animals.^[1]

Uses

Food uses

Acacia seeds are often used for food and a variety of other products.
In Burma, Laos and Thailand, the feathery shoots of ''Acacia pennata'' (common name ''cha-om'', ชะอม and ''su pout ywet'' in Burmese) are used in soups, curries, omelettes, and stir-fries.
Honey made by bees using the acacia flower as forage is considered a delicacy, appreciated for its mild flowery taste, soft running texture and glass like appearance.
It is listed as an ingredient in soft drinks Fresca and Barq's Root Beer. Altoids peppermints also list Acacia as an ingredient.

Gum

Various species of acacia yield gum. True gum arabic is the product of ''Acacia senegal'', abundant in dry tropical West Africa from Senegal to northern Nigeria.
''Acacia arabica'' is the gum-Arabic tree of India, but yields a gum inferior to the true gum-Arabic.

Medicinal uses

Many Acacia species have important uses in traditional medicine. Most all of the uses have been shown to have a scientific basis, since chemical compounds found in the various species have medicinal effects.
In Ayurvedic medicine, ''Acacia nilotica'' is considered a remedy that is helpful for treating premature ejaculation.
An astringent medicine, called 'catechu' or 'cutch', is procured from several species, but more especially from ''Acacia catechu'', by boiling down the wood and evaporating the solution so as to get an extract.^[2]

Ornamental uses

A few species are widely grown as ornamentals in gardens; the most popular perhaps is ''Acacia dealbata'' (Silver Wattle), with its attractive glaucous to silvery leaves and bright yellow flowers; it is erroneously known as "mimosa" in some areas where it is cultivated, through confusion with the related genus ''Mimosa''.
Another ornamental acacia is ''Acacia xanthophloea'' (Fever Tree).
Southern European florists use ''Acacia baileyana'', ''Acacia dealbata'', ''Acacia pycnantha'' and ''Acacia retinodes'' as cut flowers and the common name there for them is 'mimosa'.^[3]
Ornamental species of acacia are also used by homeowners and landscape architects for home security purposes.^[4][5] The sharp thorns of some species deter unauthorized persons from entering private properties, and may prevent break-ins if planted under windows and near drainpipes. The aesthetic characteristics of acacia plants, in conjunction with their home security qualities, makes them a considerable alternative to artificial fences and walls.

Paints

The ancient Egyptians used Acacia in paints.^[6]

Perfume

''Acacia farnesiana'' is used in the perfume industry due to its strong fragrance. The use of Acacia as a fragrance dates back centuries. In The Bible, burning of acacia wood as a form of incense is mentioned several times.

Symbolism and ritual

The Acacia is used as a symbol in Freemasonry, to represent purity and endurance of the soul, and as funerary symbolism signifying resurrection and immortality.
Several parts (mainly bark, root and resin) of Acacia are used to make incense for rituals. Acacia is used in incense mainly in India, Nepal, Tibet and China. Smoke from Acacia bark is thought to keep demons and ghosts away and to put the gods in a good mood. Roots and resin from Acacia are combined with rhododendron, acorus, cytisus, salvia and some other components of incense. Both people and elephants like an alcoholic beverage made from acacia fruit.⁶²

Tannin

The bark of various Australian species, known as 'wattles', is very rich in tannin and forms an important article of export; important species include ''Acacia pycnantha'' (Golden Wattle), ''Acacia decurrens'' (Tan Wattle), ''Acacia dealbata'' (Silver Wattle) and ''Acacia mearnsii'' (Black Wattle).

Tannin Content of Various Acacia Species

	'Bark'	'Dried Leaves'	'Seed Pods'
'Species'	'Tannins [%]'	'Tannins [%]'	'Tannins [%]'
''Acacia albida''	2-28%[7]		5-13%[8]
''Acacia cavenia''			32%[9]
''Acacia dealbata''	19.1%[10]
''Acacia decurrens''	37-40%[11]
''Acacia farnesiana''			23%[11]
''Acacia mearnsii''	25-35%[13]
''Acacia melanoxylon''	20%[14]
''Acacia nilotica''	18-23% ★ [15]
''Acacia penninervis''	18%[14]
''Acacia pycnantha''	30-45%[14]	15-16%[14]
''Acacia saligna''	21.5%[19]

★ Inner bark




Black Wattle is grown in plantations in South Africa. Most Australian acacia species introduced to South Africa have become an enormous problem, due to their naturally aggressive propagation. The pods of ''Acacia nilotica'' (under the name of 'neb-neb'), and of other African species are also rich in tannin and used by tanners.

Wood

Most acacia species are used for valuable timber; such are ''Acacia melanoxylon'' (Blackwood) from Australia, which attains a great size; its wood is used for furniture, and takes a high polish; and ''Acacia omalophylla'' ('Myall Wood', also Australian), which yields a fragrant timber, used for ornamental purposes. ''Acacia seyal'' is thought to be the Shittah-tree of the Bible, which supplied shittim-wood. According to the Book of Exodus, this was used in the construction of the Ark of the Covenant. ''Acacia koa'' from the Hawaiian Islands and ''Acacia heterophylla'' from Réunion island are both excellent timber trees.

'Approximate Wood Densities of Various Acacia Species'

	'Density'	'Density'	'Heartwood Density'	'Sapwood Density'
'Species'	'[g/cm³]'	'[kg/m³]'	'[kg/m³]'	'[kg/m³]'
''Acacia acuminata''		1040[20]
''Acacia amythethophylla''			1170[21]
''Acacia catechu''	0.88[22]
''Acacia confusa''	0.69-0.75[23]
''Acacia erioloba''			1230[24]
''Acacia galpinii''			800[24]
''Acacia goetzii''				1025[24]
''Acacia karoo''			800[24]
''Acacia leucophloea''	0.76[23]
''Acacia mellifera subsp. mellifera''			1100[24]
''Acacia nilotica''	0.70[23]		1170[24]
''Acacia nilotica subsp. adstringens''	0.827-0.945[24]
''Acacia nilotica subsp. nilotica''	0. 80[24]		1170[24]
''Acacia polyacantha subsp. campylacantha''			705[24]
''Acacia sieberiana''		655[24]

In Indonesia (mainly in Sumatra) and in Malaysia (mainly in Sarawak) plantations of ''Acacia mangium'' are being established to supply pulpwood to the paper industry.

Phytochemistry of Acacias

Alkaloids

As mentioned previously, Acacias contain a number of organic compounds that defend them from pests and grazing animals.^[37] Many of these compounds are psychoactive in humans.
The alkaloids found in Acacias include Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and N-methyltryptamine (NMT). The plant leaves, stems and/or roots are sometimes made into a brew together with some MAOI-containing plant and consumed orally for healing, ceremonial or religious uses. Egyptian mythology has associated the acacia tree with characteristics of the tree of life (cf. article on the Legend of Osiris and Isis).

Acacias Known to Contain Psychoactive Alkaloids

''Acacia acuminata''	Up to 1.5% alkaloids, mainly consisting of tryptamine in leaf[38]
''Acacia adunca''	β-methyl-phenethylamine, 2.4% in leaves74
''Acacia alpina''	Active principles in leaf[39]
''Acacia aneura''	Psychoactive.[40][41] Ash used in Pituri.[42] Ether extracts about 2-6% of the dried leaf mass.[43]
''Acacia angustifolia''	Psychoactive,40 Tryptamines
''Acacia angustissima''	β-methyl-phenethylamine[44], NMT and DMT in leaf (1.1-10.2 ppm)[45]
''Acacia aroma''	Tryptamine alkaloids.[46] Significant amount of tryptamine in the seeds.[47]
''Acacia auriculiformis''	5-MeO-DMT in stem bark[48]
''Acacia baileyana''	0.02% tryptamine and β-carbolines, in the leaf, Tetrahydroharman[49][50]63
''Acacia beauverdiana''	Psychoactive[51] Ash used in Pituri.42
''Acacia berlandieri''	DMT, amphetamines, mescaline, nicotine[52]
''Acacia catechu''	DMT[53] and other tryptamines in leaf, bark
''Acacia caven''	Psychoactive40
''Acacia chundra''	DMT and other tryptamines in leaf, bark
''Acacia colei''	DMT[54]
''Acacia complanata''	0.3% alkaloids in leaf and stem, almost all N-methyl-tetrahydroharman, with traces of tetrahydroharman, some of tryptamine[55][56][57]
''Acacia concinna''	Nicotine[58]
''Acacia confusa''	DMT & NMT in leaf, stem & bark 0.04% NMT and 0.02% DMT in stem.[49] Also N,N-dimethyltryptamine N-oxide[60]
''Acacia constricta''	β-methyl-phenethylamine44
''Acacia coriacea''	Psychoactive40[61] Ash used in Pituri.42
''Acacia cornigera''	Psychoactive,40 Tryptamines[62]
''Acacia cultriformis''	Tryptamine, in the leaf, stem39 and seeds.47 Phenethylamine in leaf and seeds47
''Acacia cuthbertsonii''	Psychoactive51
''Acacia decurrens''	Psychoactive,40 but less than 0.02% alkaloids[63]
''Acacia delibrata''	Psychoactive51
''Acacia falcata''	Psychoactive,51 but less than 0.02% alkaloids63
''Acacia farnesiana''	Traces of 5-MeO-DMT[64] in fruit. β-methyl-phenethylamine, flower.[65] Ether extracts about 2-6% of the dried leaf mass.[43] Alkaloids are present in the bark[67] and leaves.[68] Amphetamines and mescaline also found in tree.62
''Acacia filiciana''	Psychoactive40
''Acacia floribunda''	Tryptamine, phenethylamine,[69] in flowers47 other tryptamines,[70] phenethylamines[71]
''Acacia georginae''	Psychoactive,40 plus deadly toxins
''Acacia greggii''	N-methyl-β-phenethylamine,[72] phenethylamine1
''Acacia harpophylla''	Phenethylamine, hordenine at a ratio of 2:3 in dried leaves, 0.6% total74
''Acacia holoserica''	Hordenine, 1.2% in bark74
''Acacia horrida''	Psychoactive40
''Acacia implexa''	Psychoactive[73]
''Acacia jurema''	DMT, NMT
''Acacia karroo''	Psychoactive
''Acacia kempeana''	Psychoactive4041
''Acacia kettlewelliae''	1.5[74]-1.88%[75] alkaloids, 92% consisting of phenylethylamine.74 0.9% N-methyl-2-phenylethylamine found a different time.74
''Acacia laeta''	DMT, in the leaf39
''Acacia lingulata''	Psychoactive4041
''Acacia longifolia''	0.2% tryptamine in bark, leaves, some in flowers, phenylethylamine in flowers,69 0.2% DMT in plant.[76] Histamine alkaloids.63
''Acacia longifolia'' var. ''sophorae''	Tryptamine in leaves, bark47
''Acacia macradenia''	Tryptamine47
''Acacia maidenii''	0.6% NMT and DMT in about a 2:3 ratio in the stem bark, both present in leaves39
''Acacia mangium''	Psychoactive40
''Acacia melanoxylon''	DMT, in the bark and leaf,[77] but less than 0.02% total alkaloids63
''Acacia mellifera''	DMT, in the leaf39
''Acacia nilotica''	DMT, in the leaf39
''Acacia nilotica'' subsp. ''adstringens''	Psychoactive, DMT in the leaf
''Acacia obtusifolia''	Tryptamine,70 DMT, NMT, other tryptamines,[78] 0.4-0.5% in dried bark, 0.07% in branch tips.[79]
''Acacia oerfota''	Less than 0.1% DMT in leaf,[80]50 NMT
''Acacia penninervis''	Psychoactive51
''Acacia phlebophylla''	0.3% DMT in leaf, NMT39
''Acacia platensis''	Psychoactive40
''Acacia podalyriaefolia''	Tryptamine in the leaf,39 0.5% to 2% DMT in fresh bark, phenethylamine, trace amounts69
''Acacia polyacantha''	DMT in leaf39 and other tryptamines in leaf, bark
''Acacia polyacantha'' ssp. ''campylacantha''	Less than 0.2% DMT in leaf, NMT; DMT and other tryptamines in leaf, bark[81]
''Acacia prominens''	phenylethylamine, β-methyl-phenethylamine6974
''Acacia pruinocarpa''	Psychoactive4041 Ash used in Pituri.42
''Acacia pycantha''	Psychoactive,40 but less than 0.02% total alkaloids63
''Acacia retinodes''	DMT, NMT,[82] nicotine,62 but less than 0.02% total alkaloids found63
''Acacia rigidula''	DMT, NMT, tryptamine, amphetamines, mescaline, nicotine and others[83]
''Acacia roemeriana''	β-methyl-phenethylamine44
''Acacia salicina''	Psychoactive[84]41 Ash used in Pituri.42
''Acacia sassa''	Psychoactive[84]
''Acacia schaffneri''	β-methyl-phenethylamine, Phenethylamine1 Amphetamines and mescaline also found.62
''Acacia schottii''	β-methyl-phenethylamine44
''Acacia senegal''	Less than 0.1% DMT in leaf,39 NMT, other tryptamines. DMT in plant,65 DMT in bark.
''Acacia seyal''	DMT, in the leaf.39 Ether extracts about 1-7% of the dried leaf mass.[43]
''Acacia sieberiana''	DMT, in the leaf39
''Acacia simplex''	DMT and NMT, in the leaf, stem and trunk bark, 0.81% DMT in bark, MMT[87]39
''Acacia taxensis''	β-methyl-phenethylamine44
''Acacia tenuifolia''	Psychoactive40
''Acacia tenuifolia var. producta''	Psychoactive40
''Acacia tortilis''	DMT, NMT, and other tryptamines78
''Acacia verek''	Psychoactive.40 Less than 0.1% DMT in leaf, NMT, other tryptamines
''Acacia vestita''	Tryptamine, in the leaf and stem,39 but less than 0.02% total alkaloids63
''Acacia victoriae''	Tryptamines70, 5-MeO-alkyltryptamine47
''Acacia visco''	Psychoactive40

List of Acacia Species Having Little or No Alkaloids in the Material Sampled:⁶³

0% $le$ C $le$ 0.02%, C...Concentration of Alkaloids [%]

★ ''Acacia acinacea''

★ ''Acacia baileyana''

★ ''Acacia decurrens''

★ ''Acacia dealbata''

★ ''Acacia mearnsii''

★ ''Acacia drummondii''

★ ''Acacia elata''

★ ''Acacia falcata''

★ ''Acacia leprosa''

★ ''Acacia linearis''

★ ''Acacia melanoxylon''

★ ''Acacia pycnantha''

★ ''Acacia retinodes''

★ ''Acacia saligna''

★ ''Acacia stricta''

★ ''Acacia verticillata''

★ ''Acacia vestita''

Cyanogenic glycosides

Nineteen different species of Acacia in the Americas contain cyanogenic glycosides, which, if exposed to an enzyme which specifically splits glycosides, can release hydrogen cyanide (HCN) in the acacia "leaves."^[88] This sometimes results in the poisoning death of livestock.
If fresh plant material spontaneously produces 200 ppm or more HCN, then it is potentially toxic. This corresponds to about 7.5 μmol HCN per gram of fresh plant material. It turns out that, if acacia "leaves" lack the specific glycoside-splitting enzyme, then they may be less toxic than otherwise, even those containing significant quatities of cyanic glycosides.⁶³
Some Acacia species containing cyanogens:

★ ''Acacia giraffae''

★ ''Acacia cunninghamii''

★ ''Acacia sieberiana''

★ ''Acacia sieberiana'' var. ''woodii''^[89]

Species

There are over 1,300 species of Acacia. See List of Acacia species for a more complete listing.

Famous acacia

Perhaps the most famous acacia is the Arbre du Ténéré in Niger. The reason for the tree's fame is that it used to be the most isolated tree on in the world, approximately, 400 km far from any other tree. The tree was knocked down by a truck driver in 1973.
It has also been suggested that the altar in Exodus 27:1 (KJV; [2]) was made of a form of acacia or "shittim wood" - the Hebrew equivalent.

Identification gallery

Flowers

Bark

Foliage

Seed pods

Seeds

Thorns

Tree

Wood

See Also

★ Psychedelic plants

References

Notes

1. Chemistry of Acacias from South Texas
2. An OCR'd version of the US Dispensatory by Remington and Wood, 1918.
3. World Wide Wattle
4. Acacia, an article from homesecurityguru.com
5. Yard Protection: Your First Line of Defense, an article from homesecurityguru.com
6. Excerpt from A Consumer's Dictionary of Cosmetic Ingredients: Fifth Edition (Paperback) Amazon.com
7. Purdue University
8. .
9. Google Books ''Select Extra-tropical Plants Readily Eligible for Industrial Culture Or Naturalization'' By Ferdinand von Mueller
10. Plants for a Future Database
11. Plants for a Future Database
12. Plants for a Future Database
13. Purdue University
14. .
15. Purdue University
16. .
17. .
18. .
19. Plants for a Future Database
20. Aussie Fantom
21. The timber properties of Acacia species and their uses
22. FAO
23. .
24. .
25. .
26. .
27. .
28. .
29. .
30. .
31. .
32. .
33. .
34. .
35. .
36. .
37. Chemistry of Acacia's from South Texas
38. Lycaeum
39. Shaman Australis
40. Index of Rätsch, Christian. Enzyklopädie der psychoaktiven Pflanzen, Botanik, Ethnopharmakologie und Anwendungen, 7. Auflage. AT Verlag, 2004, 941 Seiten. ISBN 3855025703 at [1]
41. Book Index from Richard Evans Schultes, Albert HofmannPflanzen der Götter at DeutschesFachbuch.de
42. Duboisia hopwoodii - Pituri Bush - Solanaceae - Central America
43. Wattle Seed Workshop Proceedings 12 March 2002, Canberra March 2003 RIRDC Publication No 03/024, RIRDC Project No WS012-06
44. Dictionary of Plants Containing Secondary Metabolites, , John Stephen, Glasby, CRC Press, 1991,
45. English Title: Nutritive value assessment of the tropical shrub legume Acacia angustissima: anti-nutritional compounds and in vitro digestibility.Personal Authors: McSweeney, C. S., Krause, D. O., Palmer, B., Gough, J., Conlan, L. L., Hegarty, M. P.Author Affiliation: CSIRO Livestock Industries, Long Pocket Laboratories, 120 Meiers Road, Indooroopilly, Qld 4068, Australia.Document Title: Animal Feed Science and Technology, 2005 (Vol. 121) (No. 1/2) 175-190
46. Maya Ethnobotanicals
47. Acacia (Polish)
48. Lycaeum
49. .
50. www.serendipity.com
51. www.bushfood.net
52. Ask Dr. Shulgin Online: Acacias and Natural Amphetamine
53. Sacred Elixirs
54. www.abc.net.au
55. Acacia Complanata Phytochemical Studies
56. Lycaeum -- Acacias and Entheogens
57. Lycaeum
58. SBEPL
59. .
60. NMR spectral assignments of a new chlorotryptamine alkaloid and its analogues from Acacia confusaMalcolm S. Buchanan, Anthony R. Carroll, David Pass, Ronald J. QuinnMagnetic Resonance in ChemistryVolume 45, Issue 4 , Pages359 - 361.John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
61. .
62. Naturheilpraxis Fachforum (German)
63. Chemotaxonomie der Pflanzen By Robert Hegnauer
64. Lycaeum
65. Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases
66. Wattle Seed Workshop Proceedings 12 March 2002, Canberra March 2003 RIRDC Publication No 03/024, RIRDC Project No WS012-06
67. www.bpi.da.gov.ph
68. Purdue University
69. Chemotaxonomie der Pflanzen, , Robert, Hegnauer, Springer, 1994,
70. www.bluelight.ru
71. Lycaeum (Acacia floribunda)
72. .
73. wiki.magiskamolekyler.org (Swedish)
74. Fitzgerald, J.S. Alkaloids of the Australian Legumuminosae -- The Occurence of Phenylethylame Derivatives in Acacia Species, Aust. J . Chem., 1964, 17, 160-2.
75. Acacia kettlewelliae
76. Lycaeum Acacia longifolia
77. extentech.sheetster.com
78. wiki.magiskamolekyler.org (Swedish)
79. Acacia obtusifolia Phytochemical Studies
80. Plants Containing DMT (German)
81. Hortipedia
82. Pflanzentabelle APB (German)
83. Magiska Molekylers wiki
84. .
85. .
86. ''Acacia seyal'' DMT, in the leaf. Ether extracts about 1-7% of the dried leaf mass.Wattle Seed Workshop Proceedings 12 March 2002, Canberra March 2003 RIRDC Publication No 03/024, RIRDC Project No WS012-06
87. Arbeitsstelle für praktische Biologie (APB)
88. Cyanogenic Glycosides in Ant-Acacias of Mexico and Central America David S. Seigler, John E. Ebinger The Southwestern Naturalist, Vol. 32, No. 4 (Dec. 9, 1987), pp. 499-503 doi:10.2307/3671484
89. FAO Kamal M. Ibrahim, The current state of knowledge on Prosopis juliflora...

General references

★ Clement, B.A., Goff, C.M., Forbes, T.D.A. Toxic Amines and Alkaloids from Acacia rigidula, Phytochem. 1998, 49(5), 1377.

★ Shulgin, Alexander and Ann, TiHKAL the Continuation. Transform Press, 1997. ISBN 0-9630096-9-9

External links

★ World Wide Wattle

★ Acacia-world

★ Wayne's Word on "The Unforgettable Acacias"

★ The genus Acacia and Entheogenic Tryptamines, with reference to Australian and related species, by mulga

★ A description of Acacia from Pomet's 1709 reference book, History of Druggs

★ www.serendipity.com

★ Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases

★ Flora identification tools from the State Herbarium of South Australia

★ Tannins in Some Interrelated Wattles

★ List of Acacia Species in the U.S.

★ FAO Timber Properties of Various Acacia Species

★ FAO Comparison of Various Acacia Species as Forage

★ Long-term effects of roller chopping on antiherbivore defenses in three shrub species, Jason R. Schindlera, Timothy E. Fulbright

★ Vet. Path. ResultsAFIP Wednesday Slide Conference - No. 21 February 24, 1999

★ Acacia cyanophylla lindl as supplementary feed/for small stock in Libya

★ Description of Acacia Morphology

★ Nitrogen Fixaton in Acacias

★ Acacias with Cyagenic Compounds

★ Acacia Alarm System