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One of a number of posters created to promote the
Marshall Plan in Europe, featuring Turkey
'
Turkey's formal application to join the
European Community'—the organization that has since developed into the
European Union—was made on April 14th, 1987. Turkey has been a European Union (then the
European Economic Community) Associate Member since 1963.
[1] It was officially recognised as a candidate for membership on December 12th, 1999 at the
Helsinki summit of the
European Council. Negotiations were started on October 3, 2005, and the process is likely to take at least a decade to complete. The membership bid has become the central controversy of the ongoing
enlargement of the European Union.
History
Background
The modern
Republic of Turkey is the successor state to the
Ottoman Empire, the sole
Islamic power in Europe for almost
seven centuries before it sank into a decline that led some to call it the "
sick man of Europe".
[2] After the
Empire's collapse in the wake of
World War I,
Turkish revolutionaries led by
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk emerged victorious in the
Turkish War of Independence, establishing Turkey as it currently exists today. Atatürk, then
Prime Minister and later
President of Turkey, implemented
a series of reforms that modernized Turkey and moved it more towards
European culture.
[3] During
World War II, Turkey remained neutral until February 1945, when it joined the Allies. During the
Cold War, Turkey
allied itself with the United States, taking part in the
Marshall Plan in 1947, joining as a member state the
Council of Europe in 1949,
[4] and joining
NATO in 1952.
[5]
1960s - 1990s
Turkey first applied for associate membership in the
European Economic Community in 1959, and on
September 12,
1963 signed the "Agreement Creating An Association Between The Republic of Turkey and the European Economic Community", also known as the Ankara Agreement. This agreement came into effect the following year on
December 12,
1964. The Ankara Agreement sought to integrate Turkey into a customs union with the EEC whilst acknowledging the final goal of membership.
[6] In November 1970, a further protocol called the "Additional Protocol" established a timetable for the abolition of tariffs and quotas on goods traded between Turkey and the EEC.
1980 saw a temporary stop in relations as a result of the
1980 Turkish military coup following political and economic instability, though the recommencement of multiparty elections in 1983 saw Turkish-EEC relations fully restored. On
April 14,
1987, Turkey submitted its application for formal membership into the European Community. The
European Commission responded in December 1989 by confirming Ankara’s eventual membership but also by deferring the matter to more favourable times, citing Turkey’s economic and political situation, as well its
poor relations with Greece and the
conflict with Cyprus as creating an unfavourable environment with which to begin negotiations.
[7] This position was confirmed again in the Luxembourg European Council of 1997 in which accession talks were started with central and eastern European states and Cyprus, but not Turkey. During the 1990s, Turkey proceeded with a closer integration with the European Union by agreeing to a
customs union in 1995. Moreover, the Helsinki European Council of 1999 proved a milestone as the EU recognised Turkey as a candidate on equal footing with other potential candidates.
2000s
The next significant step in Turkish-EU relations came with the December 2002 Copenhagen European Council. According to it, "the EU would open negotiations with Turkey 'without delay' if the European Council in December 2004, on the basis of a report and a recommendation from the Commission, decides that Turkey fulfils the Copenhagen political criteria".
With the 2002 election of the pro-European
Islamist Justice and Development Party (AKP) led by
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, a number of reforms led to increasing stability both politically and economically. In 2004, as part of the drive to enter a reunified Cyprus into the EU, the Turkish government supported the
UN-backed
Annan Plan for Cyprus. This plan was accepted by Turkish Cypriots, but
rejected by the Greek Cypriots. At the same time, a three-decade-long period of
hyperinflation ended, with inflation reduced to 6% from annual levels of 75% during the mid-1990s.
[8]
Greece was the first country to support Turkey's accession into the EU. Greece voted yes for Turkish entrance because they believe, even though Turkey is politically and socially behind at the moment, that with the help of the EU they can make enough changes to put them up to par with other European nations.
The political reform program of the Erdoğan government continued. This included the abolition of
capital punishment, crackdown on torture, and more rights for its Kurdish population. In response to these developments, the
European Commission recommended that the negotiations should begin in 2005, but also added various precautionary measures. The EU leaders agreed on
December 16,
2004 to start accession negotiations with Turkey from
October 3,
2005. Despite an attempt by the
Austrian government to offer Turkey less than full membership, EU accession negotiations were officially launched.
Turkey's accession talks have since been dogged by a number of domestic and external problems. Several European states such as Austria have made their reluctance to allow Turkey into Europe clear. The issue of Cyprus continues to be a major obstacle to negotiations. European officials have commented on the slowdown in Turkish reforms which, combined with the Cyprus problem, has led the EU’s enlargement commissioner
Olli Rehn to warn of an impeding ‘train crash’ in negotiations with Turkey.
Despite these setbacks, Turkey closed its first chapter of negotiations in June 2006.
The earliest date that Turkey could enter the EU is 2013, the date when the next six-year EU budget will come into force. Ankara is currently aiming to comply with EU law by this date,
[9] but Brussels has refused to back 2013 as a deadline.
[10] It is believed that the accession process will take at least fifteen years.
[11]
Timeline
:1959 - Turkey applies for associate membership in the
European Economic Community.
:1963 - Association Agreement signed, acknowledging the final goal of membership.
:1964 - Association Agreement comes into effect.
[12]
:1970 - Protocol signed providing a timetable for the abolition of tariffs and quotas on goods.
:1980 - Freeze in relations following the
1980 Turkish coup d'état.
:1983 - Relations fully restored following elections.
:1987 - Application for formal membership into the
European Community.
:1989 - European Commission refuses to immediately begin accession negotiations, citing Turkey’s economic and political situation, poor relations with Greece and their conflict with Cyprus, but overall reaffirming eventual membership as the goal.
:1995 -
European Union-Turkey Customs Union is formed.
:1999 -
European Council recognises Turkey as a candidate on equal footing with other potential candidates.
:2002 - European Council states that "the EU would open negotiations with Turkey 'without delay' if Turkey fulfils the
Copenhagen criteria".
:2002 -
2002 Turkish general election returns the pro-European
Justice and Development Party (AKP) to power.
:2004 - Turkish government and
Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus back the
Annan Plan for Cyprus.
:
2004, December -
European Union agrees to start negotiations.
:
2005, October - Opening of six chapters of the Acquis: Right of Establishment & Freedom to provide Services, Company Law, Financial Services, Information Society & Media, Statistics and Financial Control
:
2006, June - Chapter on Science and Research opened and closed.
:
2006, December - Continued dispute over Cyprus prompts EU to freeze talks on eight chapters and state no chapters would be closed until a resolution is found
[13]
:
2007, March - Chapter on Enterprise and Industrial Regulations opened
[14]
:
2007, June - Chapters on Statistics and Financial Control opened, but the opening of the chapter on economic and monetary policy was blocked by
French President Nicholas Sarkozy.
[15]
Turkish membership issues
Turkey’s entry into the EU may have profound consequences on the future direction of the EU.
Support to Turkey's entry into the EU varies among the public of the current EU member states. The issues mentioned by some of those objecting to Turkey's EU candidacy can be divided among those inherent to Turkey's situation, those that involve internal issues about human rights,
democracy, and related matters, and those concerning Turkey's open external disputes with its neighbours. There is much contention over whether some of these arguments are used by people more as a proxy against peoples true feelings about Turkish membership in the sense that the country is not culturally European and therefore should be denied entry at all.
Economic
In 2004 and 2005, economic growth was above 7%,
[17] almost four times higher than average growth in the EU.
[18] Despite the strong economic gains in 2002-06, which were largely due to renewed investor interest in emerging markets, IMF backing, and tighter fiscal policy, the economy is still burdened by a high current account deficit, high debt and high unemployment.
[19]
The opening of talks about the Economic and Monetary Policy
acquis chapter of Turkey's accession bid was expected to begin in June 2007, but talks were stalled by
France.
[20]
Population
Statistics shows that the birth rate is declining in the entire continent of Europe. Especially in Eastern Europe and Russia population growth is in minus stage. The EU member states already set a goal to solve the impact of the ageing population.
[21] Turkey has a young population. This might act as a balance for the increasingly aging populations of the current EU.
In Turkey the birth rate is high and the death rate is low. Turkish population increased from 45 million in 1980 to 73 million in 2007.
[22] In the face of this problem the Turkish government plan set a goal to lowering rate population growth was failed. This also affects the economic development of Turkey. Between 1980 and 2002, GNP growth rate had actually fallen behind the rate of increase in population. From the point of view of social policy, one of the most important problems a growing population brings is unemployment. Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan supports the increase of the Turkish population. He supports the idea that post modern Turkish economy can manage the growth of the population. He stated “I don’t like to see Turkey become an aging population country similar to the European states”.
[23]
Immigration
The existence of a large labour surplus in Turkey forces the jobless to look for employment somewhere outside the country. The Merkel government has taken an action slow down the Turkish immigration to Germany.
Geographic
87% of Turkey's territory lies in geographical
Asia, including
Ankara, the Turkish capital. Turkey's membership would mean that the
European Union's external borders would reach Middle Eastern nations such as
Syria,
Iraq and
Iran. According to
Carl Bildt,
Swedish foreign minister, "[The accession of Turkey] would give the EU a decisive role for stability in the eastern part of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, which is clearly in the strategic interest of Europe."
[24] Turkey is a strong regional power, with its history and also with its
armed forces that is second largest in NATO.
Foreign relations
Cyprus
The island of
Cyprus is still divided after the
Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974, following a
coup d'etat by
Nikos Sampson against the Cypriot government of
Makarios III and fully supported by the
Greek military junta of 1967-1974 under its
de facto leader
Dimitrios Ioannides. Turkey refuses to acknowledge the
Republic of Cyprus (an EU member) as the sole authority on the island, and recognises the
Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus in the north. Turkey and Turkish Cypriots backed the 2004
Annan Plan for Cyprus aimed at reunification of the island, but was subsequently rejected by Greek Cypriots on the grounds that it did not meet their needs. According to Cypriots, the latest proposal included maintained residence rights for the many Anatolian Turks that were brought to Cyprus after the invasion and their descendants, and Greek-Cypriots who lost their property after the Turkish invasion would be granted only a restricted right of return. Although the outcome received much criticism in the EU as well, the Republic of Cyprus was admitted into the EU a week after the referendum. The Turkish government has refused to officially recognise the state of
Cyprus (a current EU member State) until its admittance into the EU. This issue alone is of great diplomatic concern because it paradoxically implies that Turkey does not fully recognise one of the sides it is negotiating with. One possible solution, apart from an unlikely change of strategy by the Turkish government, would be the introduction of a bureaucratic or diplomatic circumvention or escamotage, such as the EU adopting special negotiation rules for Turkey. The other 'solution', or rather outcome, is that the EU prefers to stick with its existing rules, known as
acquis communautaire, and further delay Turkey's accession. Turkey's non-recognition of the Republic of Cyprus has led to complications within the Customs Union. Under the customs agreements Turkey already signed as a precondition to start negotiations in 2005, it is obliged to open its ports to Cypriot planes and vessels, but Turkey refuses this and insists it will only do so after the EU proposal to open up direct trade with the Turkish Cypriots and provide
€259,000,000 in funds to help them upgrade their infrastructure is fulfilled. Greek Cypriots have subsequently threatened to veto accession talks unless Turkey complies.
Greece
Greece has been supportive overall of Turkish membership, with
Greek Prime Minister Kostas Karamanlis declaring, "Full compliance, full accession" in December 2006.
[25] In 2005 the European Commission referred to relations between Turkey and Greece as "continuing to develop positively"
[26] while also citing the lack of progress made by Turkey in dropping their claim of ''
casus belli'' over a dispute about territorial waters boundaries.
Armenia
Another factor is Turkey's economic embargo and border crossing closures currently maintained against
Armenia, due to the conflict between Armenia and
Azerbaijan over
Nagorno-Karabakh; since the end of the
Nagorno-Karabakh War in 1994, Armenia has occupied up to 14% of Azerbaijan, and supports, but does not recognise, Karabakhi independence. Both Turkey and the European Union support Azerbaijan’s claims to Nagorno-Karabakh and view the situation as an occupation of Azeri land.
[27] However, EU reports
[28] state that Turkey should take active measures to resolve this situation before eventual accession, while then-President of the Commission,
Romano Prodi said: "Personally, I do not like that the Armenian-Turkish border gate is closed. I do not exclude that the issue of closed borders could be one of the preconditions for Turkey's membership."
[29] Turkey has insisted that the route of the lucrative
Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline bypass Armenian territory.
Religious
If Turkey were to join the EU, it would be the only non-
Christian country to have done so (99.8 % of Turkey's population
[30] is at least nominally Muslim).
Samuel P. Huntington regards Turkey as a split country in his book ''
Clash of Civilizations'', which could drift off to
Islamism and/or
nationalism if European integration fails.
Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan has warned the EU that Turkey's rejection could provoke a "clash of civilizations".
In its March 2007 special report on the European Union, ''
The Economist'' speculated that should Turkey be rebuffed by the EU, the Muslim world would perceive the EU as a "Christian club", not only damaging relations between the West and the Middle East while also alienating the fifteen million Muslims already living in EU member states.
[31]
Effect upon the EU
Upon joining the EU, Turkey's almost 70 million inhabitants would bestow it the second largest number of
MEPs in the
European Parliament.
Demographic projections indicate Turkey would surpass Germany in number of seats by 2020.
In January 2005, the Turkish
AKP approached the
European People's Party and was admitted as an observer-member.
Turkey's membership would also affect future enlargement plans, especially the number of nations seeking EU membership,
grounds by which
Valéry Giscard d'Estaing has opposed Turkey's admission. d'Estaing has suggested that it would lead to demands for accession by
Morocco. Morocco's application is already rejected on the geographic grounds.
French President Nicholas Sarkozy (then a candidate) has stated in January 2007 that "Enlarging Europe with no limit risks destroying European political union, and that I do not accept...I want to say that Europe must give itself borders, that not all countries have a vocation to become members of Europe, beginning with Turkey which has no place inside the European Union."
[32]
Article 301
Opinions critical of the strongly nationalistic line are regularly prosecuted under
Article 301 of the Turkish penal code. The EU was especially critical of Article 301 during the September 2005 trial of novelist
Orhan Pamuk, with enlargement commissioner Olli Rehn calling the case "regrettable".
[33] After the case was dropped three months later, Turkey's Foreign Minister
Abdullah Gül indicated
[34] that Turkey may abandon or modify Article 301, stating that "there may be need for a new law".
In September 2006, the European Parliament called for the abolition of laws, such as Article 301, "which threaten European free speech norms".
Article 301 states that ''"A person who publicly Turkishness, the Republic or the
Grand National Assembly of Turkey, shall be punishable by imprisonment of between six months and three years." '' and also that ''"Expressions of thought intended to criticise shall not constitute a crime."''
Other
★ Turkey is one of the two states (with Azerbaijan) among the 46 members of the Council of Europe which has refused to recognise the status of
conscientious objectors or give them an alternative to military service.
[35]
★ Important groups in the European Parliament have urged Turkey to recognise the Armenian deaths in the Ottoman Empire during World War I as
genocide. Turkey acknowledges that many Armenians died, but says Turks died too, and that massacres were committed on both sides as a result of inter-ethnic violence and the wider world war.
[36] Turkey, pointing out that recognition of historical events has never been a precondition for other states, considers this an example of the creation of new obstacles by countries opposed to their joining. The European Union Parliament, by a majority of 391 to 96, stated that Turkey should recognise the Armenian genocide before it could join the European Union. This requirement was later dropped on
27 September 2006 by the general assembly of the European Parliament by 429 votes in favour to 71 against, with 125 abstentions.
[37]
★ In its second report on women's role in social, economic and political life in Turkey, the
European Parliament emphasised that respecting human rights, including women’s rights, is a condition
sine qua non for Turkey's membership of the EU. According to the report, Turkey's legal framework on women's rights "has in general been satisfactory, but its substantive implementation remains flawed"
[38]
Public reactions
In the EU
Public opinion in EU countries generally opposes Turkish membership, though with varying degrees of intensity. The
Eurobarometer March-May 2006 survey shows that 48% of EU-25 citizens are against Turkey joining the EU, while about 39% are in favour. Citizens from the new member states are more in favour of Turkey joining (44% in favour) than the old EU-15 (38% in favour). At the time of the survey, the country whose population most strongly opposed Turkish membership was
Austria (con: 81%), while
Romania is most in favour of the accession (pro: 66%). On a wider political scope, the highest support comes from the
Turkish Cypriot Community (pro: 67%) (which is not recognised as sovereign state and is ''de facto'' not European territory and out of the European institutions). These communities are even more in favour of the accession than the Turkish populace itself (pro: 54%).
[39]
In Turkey
The opening of membership talks with the EU in December 2004 was celebrated by Turkey with much fanfare,
but the Turkish populace has become increasingly
eurosceptic as negotiations are delayed. Based on what it views as lukewarm support for its accession to the EU and alleged double standards in its negotiations (France and Austria have indicated they will hold
referendums on Turkey's membership), the Turkish public has become increasingly eurosceptic in recent times. A mid-2006
Eurobarometer survey revealed that 43% of Turkish citizens view the EU positively; just 35% trust the EU, 45% support enlargement and just 29% support an EU constitution.
[40]
Official point of view
EU member states must unanimously agree to Turkish membership for Turkish accession to be successful. A number of nations could oppose it, notably
Austria, which historically served as a
bulwark for Christian Europe against the
Ottoman Empire, and
France, which is fearful of the prospect of another wave of Muslim immigrants (especially given the poor integration of its existing, mainly
Arab (i.e. not Turkish), Muslim minority).
★ Former
French President Jacques Chirac, a supporter of the accession of Turkey into the EU, had to agree that the amendment to the
French constitution authorising the ratification of the proposed
European Constitution[41] contains a clause saying that a referendum is required before France can give its approval to Turkey or other future candidates to the European Union (the amendment excludes states that have already signed agreements).
[42] Some politicians opposed to the constitutional treaty, such as
Philippe de Villiers, argued that the treaty paved the way to Turkish membership, which they deem highly undesirable.
★ Former
Austrian Chancellor Wolfgang Schüssel has said that he may hold a
referendum on the issue. Recently,
Austrian President Heinz Fischer has strongly suggested a pan-European referendum on the issue, given its great importance for the future of the EU. Recent Greek governments supported Turkish membership hoping that Turkey would soften up its stance in a number of issues of conflict between Turkey and Greece during the process of and after joining the EU. However,
opinion polls from the end of December 2004 show that opposition is twice as strong among the Greek public as support.
★ European Commission President Jose Manuel Barroso said that Turkey is not ready to join the EU "tomorrow nor the day after tomorrow", but its membership negotiations should continue. He also called on France and other member states to honour the decision to continue accession talks, describing it as a matter of credibility for the Union.
[43]
Developments within Turkey could also freeze accession talks— the rise to power of a hard-line Islamic or nationalist government, or the current government failing to prove its willingness to respect the ''acquis communautaire''. Interference of the sceptical military in civilian rule is detrimental to accession as well. Yet this point is seen favourably by some, as the Turkish army is known to intervene only when political leadership risks plunging the nation into a religious Sharia state. In effect preventing a demodernisation of the state.
The EU Progress Report from
November 9,
2005 stated that
"On 29 July 2005, Turkey signed the Additional Protocol adapting the EC Turkey Association Agreement to the accession of 10 new countries on 1 May 2004. At the same time, Turkey issued a declaration stating that signature of the Additional Protocol did not amount to recognition of the Republic of Cyprus. On 21 September, the EU adopted a counter-declaration indicating that Turkey’s declaration was unilateral, did not form part of the Protocol and had no legal effect on Turkey’s obligations under the Protocol. The EU declaration stressed that recognition of all Member States was a necessary component of the accession process. It also underlined the need for supporting the efforts of the Secretary General of the UN to bring about a comprehensive settlement of the Cyprus problem which would contribute to peace, stability and harmonious relations in the region."[44]
On
2006-11-29, the BBC reported that the European Commission members had decided to suspend parts of the talks with Turkey regarding accession, following the failure to reach agreement over the various issue surrounding the occupation of Cyprus.
[45]
See also
★
Foreign relations of the European Union
★
★
Franco-Turkish relations
★
★
Turkey-Germany relations
★
★
Greco-Turkish relations
★
★
Cyprus dispute
★
European Union-Turkey Customs Union
★
Mediterranean Union
References
1. EurActiv: EU-Turkey Relations
2. "Ottoman Empire." Britannica Student Encyclopedia. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19 Apr. 2007 http://www.britannica.com/ebi/article-206012
3. Turkey and EU
4. Turkey and the Council of Europe Council of Europe
5. Greece and Turkey accede to the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation NATO
6. Turkish Embassy, Turkey and EU
7. About Turkey and the EU
8. "Turkey's Ruling Party Marks Its 3rd Anniversary
9. Turkey targets 2013 for EU legal compliance euobserver.com
10. declines to endorse 2013 date for Turkey's EU entry euobserver.com
11. Interview with European Commission President Jose Manuel Barroso on BBC Sunday AM
12. Turkish Embassy, Turkey and EU
13. EU resumes Turkey accession talks, ''BBC'', 2007-03-29, accessed on 2007-03-29
14. EU-Turkey to re-start entry talks, ''EUPolitix.com'', 2007-03-29, accessed on 2007-03-29
15. Turkish Entry Into Europe Slowed by Sarkozy Move, ''New York Times'', 2007-06-25, accessed on 2007-06-25
16. [1]
17. European Commission--Turkey-Economic Profile
18. The ever lengthening road The Economist
19. CIA World Factbook - Turkey
20. Turkey unhappy at EU talks delay
21. http://www.eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:52006DC0571:EN:NOT
22. TUIK official report
23. star televisionu 2007 seçimler
24. Top Swedish official backs Turkey for EU Ivar Ekman
25. Karamanlis Hails EU's 'Historic' Decision to Admit Bulgaria, Romania A. Panagopoulis
26.
27. Bulletin EU 7/8-2002: Common foreign and security policy (5/39), European Commission on 27 March 2003
28. Enlargement issues - pg.8
29. Prodi Urges Turkey to Reopen Armenian Border
30. Turkey - Political profile
31. The ins and outs: The EU's most effective foreign-policy instrument has been enlargement. But how far can it go? The Economist
32. Turkey has no place in EU: Sarkozy
33. EU blasts Turkish author's trial Jonny Dymond
34. Turkey insult law 'may be dumped' BBC News staff
35. Leading Turkish writer faces jail after incurring wrath of military
36. Q&A: Armenian 'genocide'
37. New EU warning on Turkey reforms
38. Women's rights in Turkey: MEPs say improvements still needed
39. European Commission: ''Special Eurobarometer 255 - Attitudes towards EU Enlargement.'', July 2006, p. 72
40. New Eurobarometer poll results show a drop in Turkish support for the EU
41. LOI constitutionnelle n° 2005-204 du 1er mars 2005 modifiant le titre XV de la Constitution
42. Deal struck over Turkey-EU talks
43. Zaman, Javno.hr - 23/07/07; DPA, Reuters - 22/07/07
44. Final Progress Report for Turkey
45. EU urged to freeze Turkey talks
External links
★
Official Turkey Government site for EU accession
★
Failure of the talks 'would betray Turks and Europe'
★
Time to talk to Turkey
★
The case for Turkey
★
We need Turkey
★
We must not turn our back on our best Muslim ally
★
"Middle East Needs Turkey's EU Membership", Ayse Hakim, JTW
★
"U.S. Diplomat: Turkey's EU Aspirations Can Inspire Muslims", Vince Crawley, The Washington File
★
Turkish illegal restrictive measures against Cyprus and European Union shipping
★
Human Rights Watch on Turkey
★
Turkishpolitix.com - the gateway to Turkish affairs (with up-to-date dossier on EU-Turkey relations)
★
Regime change, European-style, is a measure of our civilisation
★
Turkey and the European Union
★
EU report on Issues arising from Turkey's membership perspective
★
"Turkey-EU Relations: If Turkey Says No!"
★
Foreign Affairs - Turkey's Dreams of Accession
★
Greece's Shifting Position on Turkish Accession to the EU Before and After Helsinki (1999)
★
Europe's reasons and Turkey's Accession (ARI)
★
ZEI EU-Turkey-Monitor - Newsletter to monitor accession negotiations
★
European Press Review: E.U. Snubs Turkey (Views about Turkish EU membership from London, Paris, Frankfurt, Athens, Berlin, Munich, Vienna, Hamburg, Turin, and Zurich)
★
"Turkey Apprehensive Over EU Crises", by Jonathan Gorvett, Aljazeera
★ http://www.soros.org/resources/articles_publications/publications/turkey_2004901/english.pdf
★
20 Myths and Facts about Enlargement (Official EU website)
★
The Political Criteria of Copenhagen and their application to Turkey
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