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, is a Japanese martial art developed by Morihei Ueshiba as a synthesis of his martial studies, philosophy, and religious beliefs. Aikido is often translated as "the Way of unifying (with) life energy" [1] or as "the Way of harmonious spirit." [2] Ueshiba's goal was to create an art practitioners could use to defend themselves while also protecting their attacker from injury.
Aikido is primarily a grappling art in which attacks are neutralised with various types of throws or joint locks.[3] Aikido techniques are intended to be implemented after first blending with the motion of the attacker, so that the defender may redirect the attacker's momentum without directly opposing it, thus using minimum effort.
Aikido derives mainly from the martial art of Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu, but began to diverge from it in the late 1920s, partly due to Ueshiba's involvement with the Ōmoto-kyō religion. Many of Ueshiba's senior students have different approaches to aikido, depending on when they studied with him. Today, aikido is found all over the world in a number of styles, with a broad range of interpretation and emphasis. However, they all share techniques learned from Ueshiba and a caring for the well-being of the attacker.
Etymology and basic philosophy
The word "aikido" is formed of three Japanese characters,
★ - ''ai'' - joining, harmonizing
★ - ''ki'' - spirit, life energy
★ - ''dō'' - way, path
The term ''dō'' connects the practice of aikido with the philosophical concept of ''Tao'', which can be found in martial arts such as judo and kendo, and in more peaceful arts such as Japanese calligraphy (''shodō'') and flower arranging (''kadō''). The term ''aiki'' refers to the martial arts principle or tactic of blending with an attacker's movements for the purpose of controlling their actions with minimal effort.[4] One applies ''aiki'' by understanding the rhythm and intent of the attacker to find the optimal position and timing to apply a counter-technique. Historically, ''aiki'' was mastered for the purpose of killing; however, in aikido, one seeks to neutralise an aggressor without causing harm. The founder of aikido declared, "To control aggression without inflicting injury is the Art of Peace."[5] A number of aikido practitioners interpret aikido metaphorically, seeing parallels between aikido techniques and other methods for conflict resolution.[6][7][8][9][10]
History
Morihei Ueshiba, founder of aikido.
Initial development
Takeda Sokaku
Ueshiba developed aikido primarily during the late 1920s through the 1930s through the synthesis of the older martial arts that he had studied.[12] The core martial art from which aikido derives is Daitō-ryū aiki-jūjutsu, which Ueshiba studied directly with Takeda Sokaku, the revivor of that art. Additionally, Ueshiba is known to have studied Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū with Tozawa Tokusaburō in Tokyo in 1901, Gotōha Yagyū Shingan-ryū under Nakai Masakatsu in Sakai from 1903 to 1908, and judo with Kiyoichi Takagi (高木 喜代子 ''Takagi Kiyoichi'', 1894–1972) in Tanabe in 1911.[13]
The art of Daitō-ryū is the primary technical influence on aikido. Along with empty-handed throwing and joint-locking techniques, Ueshiba incorporated training movements with weapons, such as those for the spear (''yari''), short staff (''jō''), and perhaps the . However, aikido derives much of its technical structure from the art of swordsmanship (''kenjutsu'').
Ueshiba moved to Hokkaidō in 1912, and began studying under Takeda Sokaku in 1915. His official association with Daitō-ryū continued until 1937. However, during the latter part of that period, Ueshiba had already begun to distance himself from Takeda and the Daitō-ryū. At that time, Ueshiba was referring to his martial art as "Aiki Budō". It is unclear exactly when Ueshiba began using the name "aikido", but it became the official name of the art in 1942, when the Greater Japan Martial Virtue Society (''Dai Nippon Butoku Kai'') was engaged in a government sponsored reorganization and centralization of Japanese martial arts.
Religous influences
Onisaburo Deguchi
After Ueshiba left Hokkaidō in 1919, he met and was profoundly influenced by Onisaburo Deguchi, the spiritual leader of the Ōmoto-kyō religion (a neo-Shinto movement) in Ayabe.[14] One of the primary features of Ōmoto-kyō is its emphasis on the attainment of utopia during one's life. This was a great influence on Ueshiba's martial arts philosophy of extending love and compassion, especially to those who seek to harm others. Aikido demonstrates this philosophy in its emphasis upon mastering martial arts so that one may receive an attack and harmlessly redirect it. In an ideal resolution, not only is the receiver unharmed, but so is the attacker.[15]
In addition to the effect on his spiritual growth, the connection with Deguchi gave Ueshiba entry to elite political and military circles as a martial artist. As a result of this exposure, he was able to attract not only financial backing but also gifted students. Several of these students would found their own styles of aikido.[16]
International dissemination
Aikido was first brought to the West in 1951 by Minoru Mochizuki with a visit to France where he introduced aikido techniques to judo students.[17] He was followed by Tadashi Abe in 1952 who came as the official Aikikai Hombu representative, remaining in France for seven years. Kenji Tomiki toured with a delegation of various martial arts through fifteen continental states of the United States in 1953. Subsequently in that year, Koichi Tohei was sent by Aikikai Hombu to Hawaii, for a full year, where he set up several dojo. This was backed up by several further visits and is considered the formal introduction of aikido to the United States. The United Kingdom followed in 1955; Italy in 1964; Germany and Australia in 1965. Today there are aikido dojo available to train throughout the world.
Proliferation of independent organisations
The biggest aikido organisation is the Aikikai Foundation which remains under the control of the Ueshiba family. However, aikido has many styles, mostly formed by Morihei Ueshiba's major students.
The earliest independent styles to emerge were Yoseikan Aikido, begun by Minoru Mochizuki in 1931, Yoshinkan Aikido founded by Gozo Shioda in 1955,[18] and Shodokan Aikido, founded by Kenji Tomiki in 1967.[19] The emergence of these styles pre-dated Ueshiba's death and did not cause any major upheavals when they were formalized. Shodokan Aikido, however, was controversial, since it introduced a unique rule-based competition that some felt was contrary to the spirit of aikido.
After Ueshiba's death in 1969, two more major styles emerged. Significant controversy arose with the departure of the Aikikai Hombu Dojo's chief instructor Koichi Tohei, in 1974. Tohei left as a result of a disagreement with the son of the founder, Kisshomaru Ueshiba , who at that time headed the Aikikai Foundation. The disagreement was over the proper role of ''ki'' development in regular aikido training. After Tohei left, he formed his own style, called Shin Shin Toitsu Aikido, and the organization which governs it, the Ki Society.[20]
A final major style evolved from Ueshiba's retirement in Iwama, Ibaraki, and the teaching methodology of long term student Morihiro Saito. It is unofficially referred to as the "Iwama style", and at one point a number of its followers formed a loose network of schools they called Iwama Ryu. Although Iwama style practitioners remained part of the Aikikai until Saito's death in 2002, followers of Saito subsequently split into two groups; one remaining with the Aikikai and the other forming the independent organization the Shinshin Aikishuren Kai, in 2004 around Saito's son Hitohiro Saito.
Today, the major styles of aikido are each run by a separate governing organization, have their own in Japan, and have an international breadth.
Physical training
In aikido, as in virtually all Japanese martial arts, there are both physical and mental aspects of training. The physical training in aikido is diverse, covering both general physical fitness and conditioning, as well as specific techniques.[21] Because a substantial portion of any aikido curriculum consists of throws, the first thing most students learn is how to safely fall or roll.[21] The specific techniques for attack include both strikes and grabs; the techniques for defense consist of throws and pins. After basic techniques are learned, students study freestyle defense against multiple opponents, and in certain styles, techniques with weapons.
General fitness and training
Physical training goals pursued in conjunction with aikido include controlled relaxation, flexibility, and endurance, with less emphasis on strength training. In aikido technique, pushing or extending movements are much more common than pulling or contracting movements found in other arts, and this distinction can be applied to general fitness goals for the aikido practitioner.
Certain anaerobic fitness activities, such as weight training, emphasize contractionary power, in which specific muscles or muscle groups are isolated and worked to improve tone, mass, and power. Aikido-related training instead emphasizes the use of coordinated whole-body movement and balance, more similar to yoga or pilates. For example, many dojo begin each class with , which may include stretching and breakfalls.[23]
Roles of ''uke'' and ''nage''
Aikido training is based primarily on two partners practicing pre-arranged forms (''kata'') rather than freestyle practice. The basic pattern is for the receiver of the technique (''uke'') to initiate an attack against the thrower (投げ ''nage'', also referred to as 取り ''tori'', or 仕手 ''shite'', depending on aikido style), who neutralises this attack with an aikido technique.
Both halves of the technique, that of ''uke'' and that of ''nage'', are considered essential to aikido training. Both are studying aikido principles of blending and adaptation. ''Nage'' learns to blend with and control attacking energy, while ''uke'' learns to become calm and flexible in the disadvantageous, off-balance positions in which ''nage'' places them. This "receiving" of the technique is called ''ukemi''.[24] ''Uke'' continuously seeks to regain balance and cover vulnerabilities (e.g., an exposed side), while ''nage'' uses position and timing to keep ''uke'' off-balance and vulnerable. In more advanced training, ''uke'' will sometimes apply to regain balance and pin or throw ''nage''.
refers to the act of receiving a technique. Good ''ukemi'' involves a parry or breakfall that is used to avoid pain or injury. In applying a technique, it is the responsibility of ''nage'' to prevent injury to ''uke'' by employing a speed and force of application that is commensurate with their partner's proficiency in ''ukemi''. Injuries (especially those to the joints), when they do occur in aikido, are often the result of ''nage'' misjudging the ability of ''uke'' to receive the throw or pin. Aikido and injuries: special report by Fumiaki Shishida Aiki News 1989;80 (April); partial English translation of article re-printed in Aikido Journal [1] Aikido and Injuries Encyclopedia of Aikido
Initial attacks
Aikido techniques are usually a defense against an attack; therefore, to practice aikido with their partner, students must learn to deliver various types of attacks. Although attacks are not studied as thoroughly as in striking-based arts, "honest" attacks (a strong strike or an immobilizing grab) are needed to study correct and effective application of technique.
Many of the of aikido are often said to resemble cuts from a sword or other grasped object, which may suggest origins in techniques intended for armed combat. Other techniques, which appear to explicitly be punches (''tsuki''), are also practiced as thrusts with a knife or sword. Kicks are generally reserved for upper-level variations; reasons cited include that falls from kicks are especially dangerous, and that kicks (high kicks in particular) were uncommon during the types of combat prevalent in feudal Japan. Some basic strikes include:
★ a vertical knife-hand strike to the head.
★ a diagonal knife-hand strike to the side of the head or neck.
★ a punch to the torso. Specific targets include the chest, abdomen, and solar plexus. Same as , and .
★ a punch to the face. Same as .
Beginners in particular often practice techniques from grabs, both because they are safer and because it is easier to feel the energy and lines of force of a hold than a strike. Some grabs are historically derived from being held while trying to draw a weapon; a technique could then be used to free oneself and immobilize or strike the attacker who is grabbing the defender. The following are examples of some basic grabs:
★ one hand grabs one wrist.
★ both hands grab one wrist.
★ both hands grab both wrists. Same as .
★ a shoulder grab. "Both-shoulders-grab" is
★ grabbing the (clothing of the) chest. Same as .
Basic techniques
Diagram of ''ikkyō'', or "first technique". ''Yonkyō'' has a similar mechanism of action, although the upper hand grips the forearm rather than the elbow.
The following are a sample of the basic or widely practiced throws and pins. The precise terminology for some may vary between organisations and styles, so what follows are the terms used by the Aikikai Foundation. Note that despite the names of the first five techniques listed, they are not universally taught in numeric order.[25]
★ a control using one hand on the elbow and one on near the wrist which leverages ''uke'' to the ground. This grip also applies pressure into the ulnar nerve at the wrist.
★ an adductive wristlock that torques the arm and applies painful nerve pressure.
★ a pronating wristlock that directs upward-spiraling tension throughout the arm, elbow and shoulder.
★ a shoulder control similar to ''ikkyō'', but with both hands gripping the forearm. The knuckles (from the palm side) are applied to the recipient's radial nerve against the periosteum of the forearm bone.
★ visually similar to ''ikkyō'', but with an inverted grip of the wrist, medial rotation of the arm and shoulder, and downward pressure on the elbow. Common in knife and other weapon take-aways.
★ The hand is folded back past the shoulder, locking the shoulder joint.
★ a supinating wristlock-throw that stretches the extensor digitorum.
★ a term for various types of flowing "timing throws".
★ throws in which ''nage'' moves through the space occupied by ''uke''. The classic form superficially resembles a "clothesline" technique.
★ beginning with ''ryōte-dori''; moving forward, ''nage'' sweeps one hand low ("earth") and the other high ("heaven"), which unbalances ''uke'' so that he or she easily topples over.
★ aikido's version of the hip throw. ''Nage'' drops his or her hips lower than those of ''uke'', then flips ''uke'' over the resultant fulcrum.
★ a throw that locks the arms against each other. (The kanji for "10" is a cross-shape: 十)
★ ''nage'' sweeps the arm back until it locks the shoulder joint, then uses forward pressure to throw.
Diagram showing two versions of the ''ikkyō'' technique: one moving forward (the ''omote'' version) and one moving backward (the ''ura'' version). See text for more details.
Implementations
Aikido makes use of body movement (''tai sabaki'') to blend with ''uke''. For example, an technique consists of movements inward towards ''uke'', while a technique uses a pivoting motion.[26]
Additionally, an technique takes place in front of ''uke'', whereas an technique takes place to his side; a technique is applied with motion to the front of ''uke'', and a version is applied with motion towards the rear of ''uke'', usually by incorporating a turning or pivoting motion. Finally, most techniques can be performed while in a seated posture (''seiza''). Seated techniques are called ''suwari-waza''.
Thus, from fewer than twenty basic techniques, there are thousands of possible implementations. For instance, ''ikkyō'' can be applied to an opponent moving forward with a strike (perhaps with an ''ura'' type of movement to redirect the incoming force), or to an opponent who has already struck and is now moving back to reestablish distance (perhaps an ''omote-waza'' version). Specific aikido ''kata'' are typically referred to with the formula "attack-technique(-modifier)".[27] For instance, ''katate-dori ikkyō'' refers to any ''ikkyō'' technique executed when ''uke'' is holding one wrist. This could be further specified as ''katate-dori ikkyō omote'', referring to any forward-moving ''ikkyō'' technique from that grab.
''Atemi'' (当て身) are strikes (or feints) employed during an aikido technique. Some view ''atemi'' as attacks against "vital points" meant to cause damage in and of themselves. For instance, Gōzō Shioda described using ''atemi'' in a brawl to quickly down a gang's leader.[28] Others consider ''atemi'', especially to the face, to be methods of distraction meant to enable other techniques. A strike, whether or not it is blocked, can startle the target and break his or her concentration. The target may also become unbalanced in attempting to avoid the blow, for example by jerking the head back, which may allow for an easier throw.[29]
Many sayings about ''atemi'' are attributed to Morihei Ueshiba, who considered them an essential element of technique.[30]
Disarming an attacker using a technique.
Weapons training
Weapons training in aikido traditionally includes the short staff (''jō''), wooden sword (''bokken''), and knife (''tantō'').[31] Today, some schools also incorporate firearms-disarming techniques. Both weapon-taking and weapon-retention are sometimes taught, to integrate armed and unarmed aspects, although some schools of aikido do not train with weapons at all. Others, such as the Iwama style of Morihiro Saito, usually spend substantial time with ''bokken'' and ''jō'', practised under the names ''aiki-ken'', and ''aiki-jō'', respectively. The founder developed much of empty handed aikido from traditional sword and spear movements, so the practice of these movements is generally for the purpose of giving insight into the origin of techniques and movements, as well as vital practice of these basic building blocks.[32]
Technique performed against two attackers.
Multiple attackers and ''randori''
One feature of aikido is training to defend oneself against multiple attackers. Freestyle (''randori'', or ''jiyūwaza'') practice with multiple attackers is a key part of most curriculae and is required for the higher level ranks.[33] ''Randori'' exercises a person's ability to intuitively perform techniques in an unstructured environment. Strategic choice of techniques, based upon how they reposition the student relative to other attackers, is important in ''randori'' training. For instance, an ''ura'' technique might be used to neutralise the current attacker while turning to face attackers approaching from behind.
In Shodokan Aikido, ''randori'' differs in that it is not performed with multiple persons with defined roles of defender and attacker, but between two people, where both participants attack, defend, and counter at will. In this respect it resembles judo ''randori''.
Mental training
Aikido training is mental as well as physical, emphasizing the ability to relax the mind and body even under the stress of dangerous situations.[34] This is necessary in order to enable the practitioner to perform the bold enter-and-blend movements that underlie aikido techniques, wherein an attack is met with confidence and directness.[35] Morihei Ueshiba once remarked that one "must be willing to receive 99% of an opponent's attack and stare death in the face" in order to execute techniques without hesitation. As a martial art concerned not only with fighting proficiency but also with the betterment of daily life, this mental aspect is of key importance to aikido practitioners.[36]
Ki
This was the kanji for ''ki'' until 1946, when it was changed to 気.
The study of ''ki'' is a critical component of aikido, and its study defies categorization as either "physical" or "mental" training, as it encompasses both. The original ''kanji'' for ''ki'' was 氣 (shown right), and is a symbolic representation of a lid covering a pot full of rice; the "nourishing vapors" contained within are ''ki''.[37]
The character "ki" is used in everyday Japanese terms, such as , or . Ki is most often understood as unified physical and mental intention, however it is often found in traditional martial arts related with "life energy". Gōzō Shioda's Yoshinkan Aikido, considered one of the 'hard styles', largely follows Ueshiba's teachings from before World War II, and surmises that the secret to ''ki'' lies in timing and the application of the whole body's strength to a single point. In later years, Ueshiba's application of ki in Aikido took on a softer, more gentle feel. This was his Takemusu Aiki and many of his later students teach about ''ki'' from this perspective. Koichi Tohei's Ki Society centers almost exclusively around the study of the empirical (albeit subjective) experience of ki with students ranked separately in aikido techniques and ''ki'' development.[38]
Uniforms and ranking
Aikido practitioners, commonly called ''aikidoka'', generally progress by promotion through a series of "grades" (''kyū''), followed by a series of "degrees" (''dan''), pursuant to formal testing procedures. Most aikido organisations use only white and black belts to distinguish rank, but some use various belt colors. Testing requirements vary, so a particular rank in one organization is not always comparable or interchangeable with the rank of another.
The uniform worn for practicing aikido (''aikidōgi'') is similar to the training uniform (''keikogi'') used in most other modern martial arts; simple trousers and a wraparound jacket, usually white. Both thick ("judo-style"), and thin ("karate-style") cotton tops are used. Most aikido systems also add a pair of wide pleated black or indigo trousers called a ''hakama''. In many styles its use is reserved for practitioners with black belt ranks, while others allow all practitioners or female practitioners to wear a ''hakama'' regardless of rank.
Criticisms
The most common criticism of aikido is that it suffers from a lack of realism in training. This can often be traced to some forms of practice in which the training partner never resists any aspect of the technique being performed. To counteract this, a number of styles allow both training partners, after having demonstrated proficiency in being able protect themselves and their training partners, to become less and less compliant over time. Other styles, most notably Shodokan Aikido, have addressed the issue by introducing fully resistive training and a competitive format. Conversely, aikido techniques can be practiced fully since they do not require injury to the training partner. This is in contrast to some other martial arts where the techniques must be simulated in order avoid injuring ones training partners.
A study of injuries in the martial arts showed that while the type of injuries varied considerably from one art to the other, the differences in overall rates of injury were much less pronounced. Soft tissue injuries are one of the most common types of injuries found within aikido although a few deaths from repetitive "''shihōnage''" have been reported.[39]
References
1. The Principles of Aikido, , Mitsugi, Saotome, Shambhala, ,
2. Aikido and the Dynamic Sphere, , Adele, Westbrook, Charles E. Tuttle Company, ,
3. Aikido Encyclopedia of Aikido
4. Aiki Encyclopedia of Aikido
5. The Art of Peace, , Morihei, Ueshiba, Shambhala Publications, Inc., ,
6. Unlikely Teachers: Finding the Hidden Gifts in Daily Conflict, , Judy, Ringer, OnePoint Press, 2006,
7. The Magic of Conflict: Turning a Life of Work into a Work of Art, , Thomas F., Crum, Touchstone, 1998,
8. Aikido in Everyday Life: Giving In to Get Your Way, Dobson T, Miller V, , , North Atlantic Books, 1994,
9. It's a Lot Like Dancing: An Aikido Journey, , Terry, Dobson, Blue Snake Books, 1994,
10. Women in Aikido, , Andrea, Siegel, North Atlantic Books, 1993,
11. O-Sensei Encyclopedia of Aikido
12. Aikido: The Way of Harmony, , John, Stevens, Shambhala, ,
13. Ueshiba, Morihei Encyclopedia of Aikido
14. Morihei Ueshiba and Onisaburo Deguchi Encyclopedia of Aikido
15. The Teachings
16. Aikido, , Fumiaki, Shishida, ,
17. Mochizuki, Minoru Encyclopedia of Aikido
18. Yoshinkan Aikido Encyclopedia of Aikido
19. Aikido: Tradition and the Competitive Edge, , Fumiaki, Shishido, Shodokan Publishing USA, ,
20. Tohei, Koichi Encyclopedia of Aikido
21. Aikido for Life, , Gaku, Homma, North Atlantic Books, ,
22. Aikido for Life, , Gaku, Homma, North Atlantic Books, ,
23. Jumbi Taiso Encyclopedia of Aikido
24. Aikido for Life, , Gaku, Homma, North Atlantic Books, ,
25. Aikido Exercises for Teaching and Training, , C.M., Shifflett, North Atlantic Books, ,
26. Irimi, , Ellis, Amdur, Aikido Journal,
27. Aikido Terminology - An Essential Reference Tool In Both English and Japanese, , Michael, Taylor, Lulu Press, ,
28. Aikido Shugyo: Harmony in Confrontation, , Gōzō, Shioda, Shindokan Books, ,
29. Dynamic Aikido, , Gōzō, Shioda, Kodansha International, ,
30. Teachings of Ueshiba Morihei Sensei
31. Aikido Weapons Techniques: The Wooden Sword, Stick, and Knife of Aikido, , Phong, Dang, Charles E Tuttle Company, ,
32. Secrets of the Samurai: The Martial Arts of Feudal Japan, , Oscar, Ratti, Castle Books, ,
33. Best Aikido: The Fundamentals (Illustrated Japanese Classics), , Kisshomaru, Ueshiba, Kodansha International, ,
34. Zen in the Martial Arts, , Joe, Hyams, Bantam Books, ,
35. Aikido for Life, , Gaku, Homma, North Atlantic Books, ,
36. Aikido and the New Warrior, , Richard, Heckler, North Atlantic Books, ,
37. The Conceptual Scheme of Chinese Philosophical Thinking - Qi
38. A Test Worth More than a Thousand Words
39. Injuries in martial arts: a comparison of five styles, , M, Zetaruk, British journal of sports medicine,
External links
★ AikiWeb Aikido Information—a comprehensive site on aikido, with essays, forums, gallery, reviews, columns, wiki and other information.
★ AikidoFAQ—an informational aikido website, including articles, tips, and multimedia.
★ Aikido Journal Website—an extensive source of aikido historical information.
★ Aikido—The Way of Harmony Podcast—Aikido based podcast; interviews with high ranking Aikidoka from all styles about philosophy and technique.
See also
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