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EspañolULMUS AMERICANA
(Redirected from American Elm)
'''Ulmus americana''', generally known as the ' American Elm ' or, less commonly, as the 'White Elm' or 'Water Elm', is a species native to eastern North America, occurring from Nova Scotia west to southeast Saskatchewan, and south to Florida and central Texas. It is an extremely hardy tree that can withstand winter temperatures as low as - 42° C (- 44° F). Trees in areas unaffected by Dutch elm disease can live for several hundred years.
The American Elm is a deciduous tree, sometimes growing to more than 30 m [100 ft] tall with a trunk up to 1.2 m [4 ft] or more in diameter. The crown forms a high, spreading canopy with open air space beneath. The leaves are alternate, 7-15 cm long, with double-serrate margins and an oblique base. The tree is hermaphroditic, having perfect flowers, i.e. with both male and female parts, and is therefore capable of self-pollination. The flowers are small, purple-brown, and, being wind-pollinated, have no petals; they emerge in early spring before the leaves. The fruit is a flat samara 2 cm long and 1.5 cm broad, with a circular wing surrounding the single 4-5 mm seed. As in the closely related European White Elm, ''U. laevis'', the flowers and seeds are borne on 1-3 cm long stems. The American Elm reaches reproductive maturity at around 15 years of age and is unique within the genus in being tetraploid, i.e. having double the usual number of chromosomes. However, nowadays it is uncommon for the tree to reach over 10 years of age, such is its susceptibility to Dutch elm disease.
The American elm has been seriously affected by an introduced fungal disease, Dutch elm disease (DED), with heavy mortality in most of the range and in many areas outside of the natural range as far west as California. However, DED has had little impact in Florida and has not spread to the northernmost areas of cultivation, such as most of Alberta and British Columbia.
Dutch elm disease has ravaged the American elm, causing catastrophic die-offs in cities across the range. It has been estimated that only approximately 1 in 100,000 American elm trees is DED-tolerant, most known survivors simply having escaped exposure to the disease [1]. DED is an extraordinarily efficient fungal disease that causes the trees to wither and eventually to die by blocking the circulation of water and nutrients through the inner bark. The disease pandemic began in Europe shortly after the First World War, its cause formally identified by Dutch pathologists in the late 1920s, hence the name ''Dutch'' elm disease. It was accidentally introduced into North America in 1931, in shipments of logs from France destined for use as veneer in the furniture industry of Cleveland and Columbus, Ohio.
Infection occurs when an elm bark beetle vectors the fungus from an infected tree and then burrows into the living tissue of a healthy tree. Once a tree becomes infected with this disease, other American elm trees close to it often die quickly, because the fungus can infect them via the roots through grafts that the trees had formed underground. If a tree has root grafts with an adjacent, infected tree, the fungus can spread easily from one tree to the other, directly through the roots.
A fair number of mostly small to medium-sized American Elms survive nowadays in woodlands, suburban areas, and occasionally cities, where most often the survivors had been relatively isolated from other elms and thus spared a severe exposure to the fungus. For example, in Central Park and Tompkins Square Park in New York City, stands of several large elms originally planted by Frederick Law Olmstead survive because of their isolation from neighboring areas in New York where there had been heavy mortality. In historical areas of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, there are also a few mature American Elms still standing -- notably in Independence Square and the Quadrangle at the University of Pennsylvania, and also at the nearby campuses of Haverford College and Swarthmore College.
The American Elm's biology in some ways has helped to spare it from obliteration by the Dutch elm disease, in contrast to what happened to the American Chestnut with the chestnut blight. The elm's seeds are largely wind-dispersed, and the tree grows quickly and begins bearing seeds at a young age. It grows well along roads or railroad tracks, and in abandoned lots and other disturbed areas, where it is highly tolerant of most stress factors. Elms have been able to survive and to reproduce in areas where the disease had eliminated old trees, although most of these young elms eventually succumb to the disease at a relatively young age. There is some reason to hope that these elms will preserve the genetic diversity of the original population, and that they eventually will hybridize with DED-resistant varieties that are being developed or that occur naturally.
In some areas still not populated by the Dutch Elm disease-carrying Elm bark beetle, the American Elm continues to thrive, particularly in most of Alberta and in British Columbia. It is a reliable tree and recommended in places such as Calgary and Edmonton in Alberta; the province of Alberta has the largest number of DED-free American elms in the world. Aggressive measures are being taken to combat the spread of DED into Alberta, especially after a tree was found to have DED in the south-east of the province in 1998 (the tree was immediately destroyed, and as this was an isolated case no other trees were affected.)
Two species of elm bark beetle, one of them native, are known to carry the disease in North America. Although the European elm bark beetle is known to have occurred across southern and central Alberta, it does not appear to be carrying the disease in these areas.
Some cities such as Kansas City, Missouri, had used mostly American elms in planting its city streets and had had some of the finest shaded residential streets in the nation, until the disease almost obliterated these plantings in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
Many cities in the United States still have some surviving American elms, but generally this species requires frequent attention to check for elm bark beetles and DED infection. (The National Park Service often checks on the hundreds of elm trees under its care in the Washington, D.C., area for signs of illness.)
Fungicidal injections can be administered by a qualified arborist to valuable American elms, to prevent the trees' becoming infected. Such injections generally are effective as a preventive measure for up to three years when performed before any symptoms have appeared, but they may not be so effective as a treatment once the disease is visibly present.
Attempts have been made over the last few decades, with some success, to breed disease-resistant American Elm cultivars. The few selections that have been made available to the public as yet include 'Valley Forge', 'New Harmony', 'Princeton', 'Jefferson', and a set of six different clones collectively known as 'American Liberty'. The United States National Arboretum released 'Valley Forge' and 'New Harmony' in late 1995, after screening tests performed in 1992-1993 showed both had unusually high levels of resistance to DED. 'Valley Forge' performed especially well in these tests. 'Princeton' has been in occasional cultivation since the 1920s, and gained renewed attention after its performance in the same screening tests showed it also to have a high degree of DED resistance. A later test performed in 2002-2003 confirmed the DED resistance of these same three varieties, and that of 'Jefferson'. 'Jefferson' was released to wholesale nurseries in 2004 and is becoming increasingly available for planting. Thus far, plantings of these four varieties generally appear to be successful. In 2005, 90 'Princeton' elms were planted along Pennsylvania Avenue near the White House and to date are healthy and thriving.
The total number of named cultivars is circa 45, at least 18 of which have probably been lost to cultivation as a consequence of Dutch elm disease or other factors:
★ American Liberty, Ascendens, Augustine, Aurea, Beaverlodge, Beebe's Weeping, Brandon, Burgoyne, College, Columnaris, Delaware, Exhibition, Fiorei, Folia Aurea Variegata, Hines, Incisa, Independence, Iowa State, Jackson, Jefferson, Kimley, Klehmii, Lake City, L'Assomption, Lewis & Clark (Prairie Expedition™), Littleford, Markham, Minneapolis Park, Moline, Morden, New Harmony, Nigricans, Patmore, Pendula, Penn Treaty, Princeton, Pyramidata, Queen City, Sheyenne, Skinner Upright, Star, Valley Forge, Variegata, Vase, Washington
Hybrid cultivars are rare, and those that survive tend to be regarded with taxonomic suspicion. Two allegedly successful hybridizations were: 'Hamburg', and 'Kansas Hybrid', both with the Siberian Elm ''Ulmus pumila'', but it has since been suggested that the American elm in question was more likely to have been ''Ulmus rubra'', or Red Elm.
In years past, the American Elm was used widely as a shade tree and as a street tree, because of its graceful, arching, vase-like growth form and its tolerance of most stress factors. Furthermore, the cross-grained wood imbues the branches with great strength, and breakages were rare. The species has been planted beyond its natural range as far north as central Alberta, and south to Lake Worth, Florida. It also survives low desert heat at Phoenix, Arizona.
Introductions across the Atlantic rarely prospered, even before the outbreak of Dutch elm disease. In the UK, it was noted in the 19th century that the foliage of the American Elm was far more susceptible to insect damage than native elms (Elwes & Henry, 1913). A few, mostly young, specimens survive in British arboreta. The recently-introduced cultivar 'Princeton' was selected in 2002 by HRH The Prince of Wales to form an avenue from his residence Highgrove House to the garden boundary.
The American Elm occurs naturally in an assortment of conditions, most notably on bottomlands and floodplains, although it also can thrive in well-drained soils. On more elevated terrain, as in the Appalachian Mountains, it often prefers to grow along streams. In the United States, it is a major member of four cover types: Black Ash-American Elm-Red Maple; Silver Maple-American Elm; Sugarberry-American Elm-Green Ash; and Sycamore-Sweetgum-American Elm. The first two of these types also occur in Canada.[2] Some hilltops near Témiscaming, Quebec, have a Sugar Maple-Ironwood-American Elm cover type.
The leaves of the American Elm serve as food for the larvae of various Lepidoptera. See List of Lepidoptera which feed on Elms.
“There was not in the whole countryside another tree which could compare with him. He was matchless. Never a stranger passed the elm but stopped, and stared, and said or thought something about it. Even dull rustics looked, and had a momentary lapse from vacuity. The tree was compelling. He insisted upon recognition of his beauty and grace. Let one try to pass him unheeding and sunken in contemplation of his own little affairs, and lo! He would force himself out of the landscape, not only upon the eyes, but the very soul……” from ''The Six Trees'' by Mary Eleanor Wilkins Freeman.
★ Arnold Arboretum, acc. nos. 250-53 (cult. material), 412-86 wild collected in the USA.
★ Denver Botanic Gardens, one specimen, no details.
★ Holden Arboretum, acc. nos. 2005-17, 65-632, 80-663, all of unrecorded provenance.
★ Longwood Gardens, acc. nos. 1997-0074, L-0352, sources unrecorded.
★ New York Botanical Garden, acc. nos. 877/97, 944/96, 1854/99, 2111/99, 06791, all unrecorded provenance.
★ Phipps Conservatory & Botanic Gardens, acc. nos. 00/1265, 99/0660.
★ Scott Arboretum, acc. no. S000339, no other details available.
★ Brighton & Hove City Council, NCCPG elm collection [3], details not known.
★ Hortus Botanicus Nationalis, Salaspils, Latvia acc. nos. 18087,88,89,90,91,92.
★ Royal Botanic Garden, Wakehurst Place, UK, acc. nos. 1994-67, 1994-68, 1991-1163. No provenance data.
★ Thenford House arboretum, Northamptonshire, UK, no details available.
★ University of Copenhagen, Botanic Garden, acc. no. P1971-5201, wild collected in the USA.
★ Grant Crescent, Griffith, Canberra, Australia. Solitary roadside tree
Still widely available, although increasingly eclipsed by disease-resistant cultivars
None known, (cultivars only available)
★ Established Tree Planters Pty. Ltd. [4], Wandin, Victoria, Australia.
★ B and T World Seeds [5], Paguignan, 34210 Aigues-Vives, France
★ Lawyer Nursery [6], Montana Highway, 6625 West Plains, Montana, USA
★ Sandeman Seeds [7], 7 Route de Burosse, 64350 Lalongue, France
★ Barnard, E. S. (2002). ''New York City Trees''. Columbia University Press.
★ Brown, Jean-Louis. (1981). ''Les forêts du Témiscamingue, Québec: écologie et photo-interprétation''. Laboratoire d'écologie forestière, Université Laval, Québec.
★ Costello, L. R. (2004). A 10 -year evaluation of the performance of four elm cultivars in California, U. S. ''Journal of Arboriculture'', March 2004. [8]
★ Elwes, H. J. & Henry, A. (1913). ''The Trees of Great Britain & Ireland''. Vol. VII. pp 1848-1929. Private publication. [9]
★ Green, P. S. (1964). Registration of cultivar names in Ulmus. ''Arnoldia''. Vol. 24. Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University. [10]
★ Stennes, M. (2003) Good news for the American Elm. ''Shade Tree Advocate'' 5(4). Minnesota Shade Tree Advisory Committee, St. Paul, MN.
★ Townsend, A. M., Bentz, S. E., and Douglass L. W. (2005). Evaluation of 19 American Elm Clones for Tolerance to Dutch Elm Disease. ''Journal of Environmental Horticulture'', March 2005, Horticultural Research Institute, Washington, D.C.
★ Saving the American Elm, by Bruce Carley
★ USDA Plant Guide: American Elm
★ Flora of North America, Profile and map: ''U. americana'' RangeMap:
★ ''Ulmus americana'' images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu
★ Keith Warren, J. Frank Schmidt & Son Co. (2002): 'The Status of Elms in the Nursery Industry in 2000'
★ http://www.plantatlas.usf.edu/synonyms.asp?plantID=3530 Synonymy notes
★ http://www.ipni.org/ipni/advPlantNameSearch.do?find_genus=Ulmus&output_format=normal&back_page=plantsearch&find_rankToReturn=all&query_type=by_query&find_isAPNIRecord=on&find_publicationTitle=&find_includePublicationAuthors=on&find_species=americana&find_isIKRecord=on&find_sortByFamily=on&find_includeBasionymAuthors=on&find_isGCIRecord=on&find_authorAbbrev=&find_infraspecies= Synonymy notes
'''Ulmus americana''', generally known as the ' American Elm ' or, less commonly, as the 'White Elm' or 'Water Elm', is a species native to eastern North America, occurring from Nova Scotia west to southeast Saskatchewan, and south to Florida and central Texas. It is an extremely hardy tree that can withstand winter temperatures as low as - 42° C (- 44° F). Trees in areas unaffected by Dutch elm disease can live for several hundred years.
Description
The American Elm is a deciduous tree, sometimes growing to more than 30 m [100 ft] tall with a trunk up to 1.2 m [4 ft] or more in diameter. The crown forms a high, spreading canopy with open air space beneath. The leaves are alternate, 7-15 cm long, with double-serrate margins and an oblique base. The tree is hermaphroditic, having perfect flowers, i.e. with both male and female parts, and is therefore capable of self-pollination. The flowers are small, purple-brown, and, being wind-pollinated, have no petals; they emerge in early spring before the leaves. The fruit is a flat samara 2 cm long and 1.5 cm broad, with a circular wing surrounding the single 4-5 mm seed. As in the closely related European White Elm, ''U. laevis'', the flowers and seeds are borne on 1-3 cm long stems. The American Elm reaches reproductive maturity at around 15 years of age and is unique within the genus in being tetraploid, i.e. having double the usual number of chromosomes. However, nowadays it is uncommon for the tree to reach over 10 years of age, such is its susceptibility to Dutch elm disease.
Dutch Elm Disease
The American elm has been seriously affected by an introduced fungal disease, Dutch elm disease (DED), with heavy mortality in most of the range and in many areas outside of the natural range as far west as California. However, DED has had little impact in Florida and has not spread to the northernmost areas of cultivation, such as most of Alberta and British Columbia.
Dutch elm disease has ravaged the American elm, causing catastrophic die-offs in cities across the range. It has been estimated that only approximately 1 in 100,000 American elm trees is DED-tolerant, most known survivors simply having escaped exposure to the disease [1]. DED is an extraordinarily efficient fungal disease that causes the trees to wither and eventually to die by blocking the circulation of water and nutrients through the inner bark. The disease pandemic began in Europe shortly after the First World War, its cause formally identified by Dutch pathologists in the late 1920s, hence the name ''Dutch'' elm disease. It was accidentally introduced into North America in 1931, in shipments of logs from France destined for use as veneer in the furniture industry of Cleveland and Columbus, Ohio.
Infection occurs when an elm bark beetle vectors the fungus from an infected tree and then burrows into the living tissue of a healthy tree. Once a tree becomes infected with this disease, other American elm trees close to it often die quickly, because the fungus can infect them via the roots through grafts that the trees had formed underground. If a tree has root grafts with an adjacent, infected tree, the fungus can spread easily from one tree to the other, directly through the roots.
A fair number of mostly small to medium-sized American Elms survive nowadays in woodlands, suburban areas, and occasionally cities, where most often the survivors had been relatively isolated from other elms and thus spared a severe exposure to the fungus. For example, in Central Park and Tompkins Square Park in New York City, stands of several large elms originally planted by Frederick Law Olmstead survive because of their isolation from neighboring areas in New York where there had been heavy mortality. In historical areas of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, there are also a few mature American Elms still standing -- notably in Independence Square and the Quadrangle at the University of Pennsylvania, and also at the nearby campuses of Haverford College and Swarthmore College.
The American Elm's biology in some ways has helped to spare it from obliteration by the Dutch elm disease, in contrast to what happened to the American Chestnut with the chestnut blight. The elm's seeds are largely wind-dispersed, and the tree grows quickly and begins bearing seeds at a young age. It grows well along roads or railroad tracks, and in abandoned lots and other disturbed areas, where it is highly tolerant of most stress factors. Elms have been able to survive and to reproduce in areas where the disease had eliminated old trees, although most of these young elms eventually succumb to the disease at a relatively young age. There is some reason to hope that these elms will preserve the genetic diversity of the original population, and that they eventually will hybridize with DED-resistant varieties that are being developed or that occur naturally.
In some areas still not populated by the Dutch Elm disease-carrying Elm bark beetle, the American Elm continues to thrive, particularly in most of Alberta and in British Columbia. It is a reliable tree and recommended in places such as Calgary and Edmonton in Alberta; the province of Alberta has the largest number of DED-free American elms in the world. Aggressive measures are being taken to combat the spread of DED into Alberta, especially after a tree was found to have DED in the south-east of the province in 1998 (the tree was immediately destroyed, and as this was an isolated case no other trees were affected.)
Two species of elm bark beetle, one of them native, are known to carry the disease in North America. Although the European elm bark beetle is known to have occurred across southern and central Alberta, it does not appear to be carrying the disease in these areas.
Some cities such as Kansas City, Missouri, had used mostly American elms in planting its city streets and had had some of the finest shaded residential streets in the nation, until the disease almost obliterated these plantings in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
Many cities in the United States still have some surviving American elms, but generally this species requires frequent attention to check for elm bark beetles and DED infection. (The National Park Service often checks on the hundreds of elm trees under its care in the Washington, D.C., area for signs of illness.)
Fungicidal injections can be administered by a qualified arborist to valuable American elms, to prevent the trees' becoming infected. Such injections generally are effective as a preventive measure for up to three years when performed before any symptoms have appeared, but they may not be so effective as a treatment once the disease is visibly present.
Cultivars
Attempts have been made over the last few decades, with some success, to breed disease-resistant American Elm cultivars. The few selections that have been made available to the public as yet include 'Valley Forge', 'New Harmony', 'Princeton', 'Jefferson', and a set of six different clones collectively known as 'American Liberty'. The United States National Arboretum released 'Valley Forge' and 'New Harmony' in late 1995, after screening tests performed in 1992-1993 showed both had unusually high levels of resistance to DED. 'Valley Forge' performed especially well in these tests. 'Princeton' has been in occasional cultivation since the 1920s, and gained renewed attention after its performance in the same screening tests showed it also to have a high degree of DED resistance. A later test performed in 2002-2003 confirmed the DED resistance of these same three varieties, and that of 'Jefferson'. 'Jefferson' was released to wholesale nurseries in 2004 and is becoming increasingly available for planting. Thus far, plantings of these four varieties generally appear to be successful. In 2005, 90 'Princeton' elms were planted along Pennsylvania Avenue near the White House and to date are healthy and thriving.
The total number of named cultivars is circa 45, at least 18 of which have probably been lost to cultivation as a consequence of Dutch elm disease or other factors:
★ American Liberty, Ascendens, Augustine, Aurea, Beaverlodge, Beebe's Weeping, Brandon, Burgoyne, College, Columnaris, Delaware, Exhibition, Fiorei, Folia Aurea Variegata, Hines, Incisa, Independence, Iowa State, Jackson, Jefferson, Kimley, Klehmii, Lake City, L'Assomption, Lewis & Clark (Prairie Expedition™), Littleford, Markham, Minneapolis Park, Moline, Morden, New Harmony, Nigricans, Patmore, Pendula, Penn Treaty, Princeton, Pyramidata, Queen City, Sheyenne, Skinner Upright, Star, Valley Forge, Variegata, Vase, Washington
Hybrid cultivars
Hybrid cultivars are rare, and those that survive tend to be regarded with taxonomic suspicion. Two allegedly successful hybridizations were: 'Hamburg', and 'Kansas Hybrid', both with the Siberian Elm ''Ulmus pumila'', but it has since been suggested that the American elm in question was more likely to have been ''Ulmus rubra'', or Red Elm.
Cultivation and uses
In years past, the American Elm was used widely as a shade tree and as a street tree, because of its graceful, arching, vase-like growth form and its tolerance of most stress factors. Furthermore, the cross-grained wood imbues the branches with great strength, and breakages were rare. The species has been planted beyond its natural range as far north as central Alberta, and south to Lake Worth, Florida. It also survives low desert heat at Phoenix, Arizona.
Introductions across the Atlantic rarely prospered, even before the outbreak of Dutch elm disease. In the UK, it was noted in the 19th century that the foliage of the American Elm was far more susceptible to insect damage than native elms (Elwes & Henry, 1913). A few, mostly young, specimens survive in British arboreta. The recently-introduced cultivar 'Princeton' was selected in 2002 by HRH The Prince of Wales to form an avenue from his residence Highgrove House to the garden boundary.
Ecology
The American Elm occurs naturally in an assortment of conditions, most notably on bottomlands and floodplains, although it also can thrive in well-drained soils. On more elevated terrain, as in the Appalachian Mountains, it often prefers to grow along streams. In the United States, it is a major member of four cover types: Black Ash-American Elm-Red Maple; Silver Maple-American Elm; Sugarberry-American Elm-Green Ash; and Sycamore-Sweetgum-American Elm. The first two of these types also occur in Canada.[2] Some hilltops near Témiscaming, Quebec, have a Sugar Maple-Ironwood-American Elm cover type.
The leaves of the American Elm serve as food for the larvae of various Lepidoptera. See List of Lepidoptera which feed on Elms.
The American Elm in literature
“There was not in the whole countryside another tree which could compare with him. He was matchless. Never a stranger passed the elm but stopped, and stared, and said or thought something about it. Even dull rustics looked, and had a momentary lapse from vacuity. The tree was compelling. He insisted upon recognition of his beauty and grace. Let one try to pass him unheeding and sunken in contemplation of his own little affairs, and lo! He would force himself out of the landscape, not only upon the eyes, but the very soul……” from ''The Six Trees'' by Mary Eleanor Wilkins Freeman.
Arboreta etc. accessions
North America
★ Arnold Arboretum, acc. nos. 250-53 (cult. material), 412-86 wild collected in the USA.
★ Denver Botanic Gardens, one specimen, no details.
★ Holden Arboretum, acc. nos. 2005-17, 65-632, 80-663, all of unrecorded provenance.
★ Longwood Gardens, acc. nos. 1997-0074, L-0352, sources unrecorded.
★ New York Botanical Garden, acc. nos. 877/97, 944/96, 1854/99, 2111/99, 06791, all unrecorded provenance.
★ Phipps Conservatory & Botanic Gardens, acc. nos. 00/1265, 99/0660.
★ Scott Arboretum, acc. no. S000339, no other details available.
Europe
★ Brighton & Hove City Council, NCCPG elm collection [3], details not known.
★ Hortus Botanicus Nationalis, Salaspils, Latvia acc. nos. 18087,88,89,90,91,92.
★ Royal Botanic Garden, Wakehurst Place, UK, acc. nos. 1994-67, 1994-68, 1991-1163. No provenance data.
★ Thenford House arboretum, Northamptonshire, UK, no details available.
★ University of Copenhagen, Botanic Garden, acc. no. P1971-5201, wild collected in the USA.
Australasia
★ Grant Crescent, Griffith, Canberra, Australia. Solitary roadside tree
Nurseries
North America
Still widely available, although increasingly eclipsed by disease-resistant cultivars
Europe
None known, (cultivars only available)
Australasia
★ Established Tree Planters Pty. Ltd. [4], Wandin, Victoria, Australia.
Seed suppliers
★ B and T World Seeds [5], Paguignan, 34210 Aigues-Vives, France
★ Lawyer Nursery [6], Montana Highway, 6625 West Plains, Montana, USA
★ Sandeman Seeds [7], 7 Route de Burosse, 64350 Lalongue, France
References
★ Barnard, E. S. (2002). ''New York City Trees''. Columbia University Press.
★ Brown, Jean-Louis. (1981). ''Les forêts du Témiscamingue, Québec: écologie et photo-interprétation''. Laboratoire d'écologie forestière, Université Laval, Québec.
★ Costello, L. R. (2004). A 10 -year evaluation of the performance of four elm cultivars in California, U. S. ''Journal of Arboriculture'', March 2004. [8]
★ Elwes, H. J. & Henry, A. (1913). ''The Trees of Great Britain & Ireland''. Vol. VII. pp 1848-1929. Private publication. [9]
★ Green, P. S. (1964). Registration of cultivar names in Ulmus. ''Arnoldia''. Vol. 24. Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University. [10]
★ Stennes, M. (2003) Good news for the American Elm. ''Shade Tree Advocate'' 5(4). Minnesota Shade Tree Advisory Committee, St. Paul, MN.
★ Townsend, A. M., Bentz, S. E., and Douglass L. W. (2005). Evaluation of 19 American Elm Clones for Tolerance to Dutch Elm Disease. ''Journal of Environmental Horticulture'', March 2005, Horticultural Research Institute, Washington, D.C.
External links
★ Saving the American Elm, by Bruce Carley
★ USDA Plant Guide: American Elm
★ Flora of North America, Profile and map: ''U. americana'' RangeMap:
★ ''Ulmus americana'' images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu
★ Keith Warren, J. Frank Schmidt & Son Co. (2002): 'The Status of Elms in the Nursery Industry in 2000'
★ http://www.plantatlas.usf.edu/synonyms.asp?plantID=3530 Synonymy notes
★ http://www.ipni.org/ipni/advPlantNameSearch.do?find_genus=Ulmus&output_format=normal&back_page=plantsearch&find_rankToReturn=all&query_type=by_query&find_isAPNIRecord=on&find_publicationTitle=&find_includePublicationAuthors=on&find_species=americana&find_isIKRecord=on&find_sortByFamily=on&find_includeBasionymAuthors=on&find_isGCIRecord=on&find_authorAbbrev=&find_infraspecies= Synonymy notes
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