ANARCHISM
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'Anarchism' is a political philosophy or group of philosophies and attitudes which reject any form of compulsory government[1]''Anarchism''. The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2005. P. 14 "Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable." and support its elimination,''Anarchism''. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. 29 August 2006
There are a variety of types and traditions of anarchism with various points of difference,[5][6] but not all of them are mutually exclusive.[7] Other than the description above, "there is no single defining position that all anarchists hold, and those considered anarchists at best share a certain family resemblance."[8] Different anarchists prefer several different economic systems. Many favor some form of libertarian communism, collectivist anarchism or participatory economics while others support free market systems such as mutualism, agorism or anarcho-capitalism. Anarchists schools may differ from each other fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism.[9]
Origins
Main articles: History of anarchism
Opposition to the state and hierarchical authority had a long history prior to the formation of the anarchist movement in nineteenth century Europe. Some claim that anarchist themes can be detected in works as old as those of the Taoist sage Lao Tzu,[10] though this is a controversial topic.[11] Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics and their contemporary, Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism, also introduced topics which contain anarchist themes.
William Godwin is credited as one of the founders of modern anarchism.
Anarchism in the modern sense, however, has its roots in the secular political thought of the Enlightenment, particularly Rousseau's arguments for the moral centrality of freedom.''Anarchism'', Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2006 (UK version) http://uk.encarta.msn.com © 1997-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved
The word "anarchist" was originally used as a term of abuse, but by the French Revolution some groups such as the ''Enragés'' had started to use the term in a positive sense,[12] seeing the Jacobin concept of a "revolutionary government" as an oxymoron. It was in this political climate that William Godwin would develop his philosophy, which is considered by many to be the first expression of modern anarchist thought. Godwin was, according to Peter Kropotkin, "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work."[13] Godwin, as a philosophical anarchist, was opposed to revolutionary action to eliminate the state and saw a minimal state as a present "necessary evil"[14] that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge.[15] Godwin advocated an extreme form of individualism, proposing that all sorts of cooperation in labor should be eliminated.[16] Godwin felt that discrimination on any grounds besides ability was intolerable.
The first person to describe themself as an anarchist was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, something which, along with his ideas, led some to declare him the founder of modern anarchist theory.[17] Proudhon developed the theory of spontaneous order in society, whereby organization emerges without any central authority, a "positive anarchy" in which order arises from every individual "doing what he wishes and only what he wishes"[18] and where "business transactions alone produce the social order."[19] Like Godwin, Proudhon was a philosophical anarchist who opposed violent revolutionary action. He saw anarchy as:
"a form of government or constitution in which public and private consciousness, formed through the development of science and law, is alone sufficient to maintain order and guarantee all liberties. In it, as a consequence, the institutions of the police, preventive and repressive methods, officialdom, taxation, etc., are reduced to a minimum. In it, more especially, the forms of monarchy and intensive centralization disappear, to be replaced by federal institutions and a pattern of life based on the commune."[20]
Schools of thought
Mutualist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon was the first self-described anarchist.
Mutualism
Main articles: Mutualism (economic theory)
Mutualism began in the English and French labor movements of the 18th century, and later took on an anarchist form mostly associated with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in France and others in the United States.[21] This influenced individualist anarchists in the United States such as Benjamin Tucker and William B. Greene. Mutualist and individualist anarchism are characterised by a dedication to free association, voluntary contract/federation, and sometimes democratically-run mutualist banks. Many mutualists believe that a market without government intervention would drive prices to labor-costs, eliminating profit, rent, and interest, as predicted by the labor theory of value, because firms would be forced to compete over workers just as workers compete over firms, which would raise wages.[22][11]
Some see mutualism as an intermediate form between individualist and collectivist anarchism.[24] This sense seems confirmed by the mutualists' own writings. In ''What Is Property?'', Proudhon develops a concept of "liberty", equivalent to "anarchy", which is the dialectical "synthesis of communism and property."[25] Greene, influenced by Pierre Leroux, sought mutualism in the synthesis of three philosophies — communism, capitalism and socialism.[26] Although later individualist anarchists used the term mutualism to describe their economic philosophy, they retained little if any of this emphasis on synthesis.
Proudhon emphasises associations amongst producers, and Dyer D. Lum emphasised labor unionism.
Even before Proudhon Josiah Warren had proposed similar ideas,[27] after his participation in a failed Owenite experiment.[28] In the 1840s and 1850s, Charles A. Dana,[29] and William B. Greene introduced Proudhon's works to the United States. Greene adapted Proudhon's mutualism to American conditions and introduced it to Benjamin R. Tucker.[30]
Individualist anarchism
Main articles: Individualist anarchism
Individualist anarchism is an anarchist philosophical tradition that has a strong emphasis on equality of liberty and individual sovereignty, drawing much from the tradition of classical liberalism,[31] It is not a single philosophy but refers to a group of individualistic philosophies; there are "several traditions of individualist anarchism."[32] Individualist anarchists believe that "individual conscience and the pursuit of self-interest should not be constrained by any collective body or public authority."[33] Individualist anarchism has several major influences: the egoism of Max Stirner, the mutualism of Josiah Warren and Pierre Proudhon, and the natural rights theory of classical liberalism.
Max Stirner, one of the earliest and best-known exponents of individualist anarchism[34] wrote ''The Ego and Its Own'' (1844), a "founding text" of the philosophy. Stirner's philosophy was a pure "egoist" form of individualist anarchism, which supported the individual doing exactly what he pleases, taking no notice of God, state, or moral rules.[35] and holds that society had no responsibility for its members.[36] According to Stirner, most commonly accepted social institutions (including the concept of the state, property as a right, natural rights, and the very notion of society) were mere illusions or ''ghosts'' in the mind, saying of society that "the individuals are its reality." Stirner preached self-assertion and foresaw an "associations of egoists" in which individuals are drawn together by respect for each other's ruthlessness.[37] For him, property simply comes about through might. His anarchism influenced the American individualist anarchists as well as Emma Goldman who gave lectures on his thought.[38]
In the United States, Henry David Thoreau proclaimed "the inevitability of self-government accompanied by atrophy of the State" and argued that the state had no power other than what individuals cede to it,[39] but included no practical program for social change. Other individualist anarchists pursued a more comprehensive theory and practice. The "Boston anarchists" were individualist anarchists of the nineteenth century who supported private property and a free market[40]. They also advocated that protection of liberty and property should be provided by private contractors voluntarily funded in a free market rather than by the state.[41]
Like Marxists and social anarchists, they believed that state monopoly capitalism (they identified "capitalism" with state-sponsored monopoly[42]) did not reward labor with its full value. But unlike the social anarchists, individualists endorsed the exchange of labor for individual wages.[43] The nineteenth century individualists argued that the state is what allows the capitalist class to monopolise the means of production[44], and that by eliminating the state and having a truly free economy would remove these monopolies. Many 19th century individualist anarchists supported the labour theory of value and the basic idea of performing labour in exchange for wages[45], and believed that in a perfectly free market, non-labour income would vanish through competition; however, they were against the monopolies of wage labour by capitalists which existed in their time.
The nineteenth century individualists disagreed on various issues. For example, Spooner supported intellectual property rights[46] and permitted absentee ownership of land.[47] Steven T. Byington also opposed Tucker's ideas on occupancy and use requirements for land titles.[48] While they all supported private property and free markets (causing some to consider them pro-capitalist), some, such as Benjamin Tucker considered their doctrines to be socialist (Before being monopolized by Marxist ideology, "the term socialism was a broad concept," with Tucker and others understanding "socialism" to refer to any of various theories and demands aimed to solve "the labor problem" through radical changes in the capitalist economy.[49]). They also considered themselves to be anti-capitalist, defining "capitalism" as state-maintained monopolization of capital.[42] A major cleft within individualist anarchism was the division between the natural rights proponents and the Stirnerite egoists led by Tucker.
Today, individualist anarchism is expressed by the "anarcho-capitalists,"[51] after modifying the 19th century American form,[52], agorists, modern mutualists, geoanarchists, and others.
Collectivist anarchism
Main articles: Collectivist anarchism
Mikhail Bakunin
Collectivist anarchism is most commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin and the anti-authoritarian section of the First International (1864-1876). Unlike mutualists, collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production, instead advocating that ownership be collectivized. Workers would be compensated for their work on the basis of the amount of time they contributed to production, rather than goods being distributed "according to need" as in anarcho-communism. By the early 1880s, most of the European anarchist movement had adopted an anarcho-communist position, advocating the abolition of wage labour and distribution according to need rather than labor, although the early anarchist movement in Spain is sometimes associated with collectivism. Although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labor, some held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need.[53] Collective anarchism arose contemporaneously with Marxism but opposed the Marxist dictatorship of the proletariat, despite Marxism striving for a collectivist stateless society.[54]
Some collectivist anarchists do not oppose the use of currency. Some support workers being paid based on the amount of time they contributed to production. These salaries would be used to purchase commodities in a communal market.[55] This contrasts with anarcho-communism where wages would be abolished, and where individuals would take freely from a storehouse of goods "to each according to his need." Many modern-day collectivist anarchists hold their form of anarchism as a permanent society rather than a carryover to anarcho-communism or a gift economy. Some collectivist anarchists such as proponents of participatory economics believe in remuneration and a form of credit but do not believe in money or markets.
Anarchist communism
Main articles: Anarchist communism
Anarchist communists propose that a society composed of a number of self-governing communes with collective use of the means of production, with direct democracy as the political organizational form, and related to other communes through federation would be the freest form of social organisation. However, some anarchist communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and favor consensus democracy.[56] Joseph Déjacque was an early anarchist communist and the first person to describe himself as "libertarian".[57] Other important anarchist communists include Peter Kropotkin, Emma Goldman, Alexander Berkman and Errico Malatesta.
Anarcho-communist Peter Kropotkin believed that in anarchy, workers would spontaneously self-organize to produce goods in common for all society.
In anarchist communism, individuals would not receive direct compensation for labour (through sharing of profits or payment), but would instead have free access to the resources and surplus of the commune.[58] Anarchist communists believe that the value of labor cannot be measured, since the value of every creation is relative to the creator, and the creation of all products is made possible by the labor of past generations. They believe everyone should be free to consume without the restraint of arbitrary measurement of the worth of their labor. According to Kropotkin and later Murray Bookchin, the members of such a society will spontaneously perform all necessary labour because they will recognize the benefits of communal enterprise and mutual aid. Kropotkin in particular, on the basis of his biological research and experimentation, believed that humans and human society are more inclined towards efforts for mutual benefit than toward competition and strife.[59] Kropotkin believed that private property was one of the causes of oppression and exploitation and called for its abolition,[60][61] but he only opposed ownership, not possession.[11]
Some anarcho-syndicalists saw anarchist communism as their objective; for example, the Spanish CNT adopted Isaac Puente's 1932 ''El comunismo libertario''[63] as its manifesto for a post-revolutionary society. Platformism is a anarchist communist tendency in the tradition of Nestor Makhno who argued for the "vital need of an organization which, having attracted most of the participants in the anarchist movement, would establish a common tactical and political line for anarchism and thereby serve as a guide for the whole movement." Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft), , , Dielo Trouda group, FdCA, 2006, Some anarcho-communists are strongly influenced by radical individualist and egoist philosophy and believe that anarcho-communism does not require a communitarian nature at all. Forms of libertarian communism such as Situationism are strongly Egoist in nature.[64] Anarcho-communist Emma Goldman was influenced by both Stirner and Kropotkin and blended their philosophies together in her own, as shown in books of hers such as ''Anarchism And Other Essays''.[65]
Anarcho-syndicalism
Main articles: Syndicalism, Anarcho-syndicalism
A common anarcho-syndicalist flag.
In the early twentieth century anarcho-syndicalism arose as a distinct school of thought within anarchism. More heavily focused on the labour movement than previous forms of anarchism, syndicalism posits radical trade unions as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society, democratically self-managed by the workers. Anarcho-syndicalists seek to abolish the wage system and private ownership of the means of production, which they believe lead to class divisions. Important principles of syndicalism include workers' solidarity, direct action (such as general strikes and workplace recuperations), and workers' self-management.
Anarcho-syndicalism and other branches of anarchism are not mutually exclusive: anarcho-syndicalists often subscribe to communist or collectivist anarchism. Its advocates propose labour organization as a means to create the foundations of a non-hierarchical anarchist society within the current system and bring about social revolution.
Rudolf Rocker was one of the most popular voices in the anarcho-syndicalist movement. He outlined a view of the origins of the movement, what it sought, and why it was important to the future of labour in his 1938 pamphlet ''Anarchosyndicalism''.[66] Although more frequently associated with labor struggles of the early twentieth century (particularly in France and Spain), many syndicalist organizations are active today.
Anarcho-capitalism
Main articles: Anarcho-capitalism, Anarchism and anarcho-capitalism
Anarcho-capitalism (also referred to as ''private property anarchism'' or a type of ''free-market anarchism''[67]) is a political philosophy (whose status within anarchism is disputed[68]) which has its most significant following in the United States.[69] It is "based on a belief in the freedom to own private property, a rejection of any form of governmental authority or intervention, and the upholding of the competitive free market as the main mechanism for social interaction."[70] Anarcho-capitalists, like earlier American anarchists such as Benjamin Tucker, would like for all services, including law enforcement and security, to be performed by multiple private providers all competing for business, rather than by a monopolist state agency funded by taxation. Anarcho-capitalism's leading proponents include Murray Rothbard, David D. Friedman, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, and Walter Block. It has been influenced by pro-market libertarians such as Gustave de Molinari, Frederic Bastiat, and Robert Nozick.
Although anarcho-capitalism was also influenced by Tucker and Spooner,[71] it rejects their labor theory of value in favor of the neo-classical marginalist view. Thus, many anarcho-capitalists, like most modern economists, do not believe that prices in a free market are, or would be, proportional to labor (nor that "usury" or "exploitation" necessarily occurs where they are disproportionate). Anarcho-capitalists such as Rothbard, believe that different prices of goods and services in a market, whether completely free or not, are ultimately the result of goods and services having different marginal utilities rather than the fact they contain differing amounts of labor - and that there is nothing unjust about this. Anarcho-capitalists also disagree with Tucker that interest would disappear with unregulated banking and money issuance. Rothbard believed that people in general do not wish to lend their money to others without compensation, so there is no reason why this would change where banking is unregulated (nor does he agree that unregulated banking would increase the supply of money).[72] Rothbard defined free-market capitalism as "peaceful voluntary exchange", in contrast to "state capitalism" which he defined as a collusive partnership between business and government that uses coercion to subvert the free market.[73]
Anarcho-capitalism has a theory of legitimacy that supports private property as long as it was obtained by labor, trade, or gift.[74] Anarcho-capitalists support the liberty of individuals to be self-employed or to contract to be employees of others, whichever they prefer. David Friedman has expressed preference for a society where "almost everyone is self-employed."[75] Most anarcho-capitalists believe that in the absence of the institutionalized aggression carried on by the state, non-coercive capitalism would naturally and inevitably develop through market processes, and thus other forms of aggression would be diminished. Hence, Rothbard's statement that "capitalism is the fullest expression of anarchism, and anarchism is the fullest expression of capitalism."[76]
Market left-libertarianism
Main articles: left-libertarianism
Some market-oriented anarchist philosophies are considered left-libertarian.
Mutualism, initially developed in the 19th century, has reemerged, incorporating modern economic ideas such as marginal utility theory. Kevin A. Carson's book ''Studies in Mutualist Political Economy'' was influential in this regard, updating the labor theory of value with Austrian economics. Agorism, an anarchist tendency founded Samuel Edward Konkin III advocates counter-economics, working in untaxed black or grey markets, and boycotting as much as possible the unfree taxed market with the intended result that private voluntary institutions emerge and outcompete statist ones. Geoanarchism, an anarchist form of Henry George's philosophy, is considered left-libertarian because it assumes land to be initially owned in common, so that when land is privately appropriated the proprietor pays rent to the community. These philosophies share similar concerns and are collectively known as left-libertarianism.[77]
Green anarchism
Main articles: Green Anarchism
Green and black flag of Green Anarchism.
Green anarchism advocates a return to a pre-industrial and usually pre-agricultural society.[78] It develops a critique of industrial civilization. In this critique technology and development have alienated people from the natural world. This philosophy develops themes present in the political action of the Luddites and the writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, although when primitivism emerged it was influenced more directly by the works of theorists such as the Frankfurt School Marxists Theodor Adorno and Herbert Marcuse; anthropologists Marshall Sahlins and Richard Lee; and others such as Lewis Mumford, Jean Baudrillard and Gary Snyder. Many advocates of green anarchism and primitivism consider Fredy Perlman as the modern progenitor of their views.
Some green anarchists, identifying themselves as primitivists, advocate a complete process of 'rewilding' and a return to nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles while many green anarchists only wish to see an end to industrial society and do not necessarily oppose domestication or agriculture. Key theorists in the former category include Derrick Jensen and John Zerzan while the 'Unabomber' Theodore Kaczynski belongs in the latter. Still, many green anarchists decide to skirt these issues entirely, focusing not on a post-revolutionary future, but on defense of the earth and social revolution in the present. Today there is disagreement between primitivists and followers of more traditional forms of anarchism, such as the social ecology of Murray Bookchin and class struggle anarchism, although many green anarchists do advocate class struggle.
Anarchism without adjectives
Main articles: Anarchism without adjectives
''Anarchism without adjectives'', in the words of historian George Richard Esenwein, "referred to an unhyphenated form of anarchism, that is, a doctrine without any qualifying labels such as communist, collectivist, mutualist, or individualist. For others, ... [it] was simply understood as an attitude that tolerated the coexistence of different anarchist schools".[79] ''Anarchism without adjectives'' emphasizes harmony between various anarchist factions and attempts to unite them around their shared anti-authoritarian beliefs.
The expression was coined by Cuban-born Fernando Tarrida del Mármol, who used it in Barcelona in November 1889 as a call for tolerance, after being troubled by the "bitter debates" between the different movements.[80]
To these anarchists the economic preferences are considered to be of "secondary importance" to abolishing all authority, with free experimentation the one rule of a free society. Rudolf Rocker said that the different types of anarchism presented "only different methods of economy, the practical possibilities of which have yet to be tested, and that the first objective is to secure the personal and social freedom of men no matter upon which economics basis this is to be accomplished."[81]
Voltairine de Cleyre was an anarchist without adjectives who initially identified herself as an individualist anarchist but later espoused a collectivist form of anarchism,[82] while refusing to identify herself with any of the contemporary schools. She commented that "Socialism and Communism both demand a degree of joint effort and administration which would beget more regulation than is wholly consistent with ideal Anarchism; Individualism and Mutualism, resting upon property, involve a development of the private policeman not at all compatible with my notion of freedom" although she stopped short of denouncing these tendencies as un-anarchistic.[83] Errico Malatesta was another proponent of anarchism without adjectives, stating that "[i]t is not right for us, to say the least, to fall into strife over mere hypotheses."[84] Fred Woodworth is a contemporary anarchist without adjectives.[85]
Anarchism as a social movement
The First International
Main articles: International Workingmen's Association, Anarchism and Marxism
The masonic "level in a circle" as used by the Federal Council of Spain of the International Workingmen's Association. Note the inclusion of the plumb, one of the working tools of operative masonry, and a symbol of rectitude of conduct.[86]
Karl Marx became a leading figure in the International and a member of its General Council. Proudhon's followers, the mutualists, opposed Marx's state socialism, advocating political abstentionism and small property holdings. Mikhail Bakunin joined in 1868, allying with the anti-authoritarian socialist sections of the International, who advocated the revolutionary overthrow of the state and the collectivization of property. At first, the collectivists worked with the Marxists to push the First International in a more revolutionary socialist direction. Subsequently, the International became polarized into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads.
Bakunin characterised Marx's ideas as authoritarian and predicted that, if a Marxist party came to power, its leaders would simply take the place of the ruling class they had fought against.[87] In 1872, the conflict climaxed with a final split between the two groups, when, at the Hague Congress, Marx engineered the expulsion of Bakunin and James Guillaume from the International and had its headquarters transferred to New York. In response, the anti-authoritarian sections formed their own International at the St. Imier Congress, adopting a revolutionary anarchist program.
Anarchism and organized labor
Main articles: Anarcho-syndicalism, Anarchism in Spain
The anti-authoritarian sections of the First International were the precursors of the anarcho-syndicalists, seeking to "replace the privilege and authority of the State" with the "free and spontaneous organization of labor."[88]
Spanish anarcho-syndicalists successfully organized autonomous communities during the Spanish Revolution (1936 – 1939).
The Confédération Générale du Travail (General Confederation of Labour, CGT), formed in France in 1895, was the first major anarcho-syndicalist movement, but it had been preceded by the Spanish Workers Federation in 1881. Anarchist trade union federations were of special importance in Spain. The most successful was the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (National Confederation of Labour: CNT), founded in 1910. Before the 1940s, the CNT was the major force in Spanish working class politics and played a major role in the Spanish Civil War. The CNT was affiliated with the International Workers Association, a federation of anarcho-syndicalist trade unions founded in 1922, with delegates representing two million workers from 15 countries in Europe and Latin America.
The largest organised anarchist movement today is in Spain, in the form of the Confederación General del Trabajo (CGT) and the CNT. CGT membership was estimated to be around 100,000 for the year 2003.[89] Other active syndicalist movements include the US Workers Solidarity Alliance and the UK Solidarity Federation. The revolutionary industrial unionist Industrial Workers of the World, claiming 2,000 paying members, and the International Workers Association, an anarcho-syndicalist successor to the First International, also remain active.
Even though the organized labor movement has historically been most closely aligned with social anarchists, it has also historically garnered much support from individualist and mutualist anarchists. Individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker believed that strikes should be composed by free workers rather than by bureaucratic union officials and organizations. He argued, ''"strikes, whenever and wherever inaugurated, deserve encouragement from all the friends of labor. . . They show that people are beginning to know their rights, and knowing, dare to maintain them."'' [90] and furthermore, ''"as an awakening agent, as an agitating force, the beneficent influence of a strike is immeasurable. . . with our present economic system almost every strike is just. For what is justice in production and distribution? That labor, which creates all, shall have all."'' [91] Tucker envisioned an individualist anarchist society as ''"each man reaping the fruits of his labor and no man able to live in idleness on an income from capital....become[ing] a great hive of Anarchistic workers, prosperous and free individuals [combining] to carry on their production and distribution on the cost principle."'' [92] rather than a bureaucratic organization of workers organized into rank and file unions. However, he did hold a genuine appreciation for labor unions (which he called ''"trades-union socialism"'') and saw it as ''"an intelligent and self-governing socialism"'' saying, ''"[they] promise the coming substitution of industrial socialism for usurping legislative mobism."'' [93] Pierre-Joseph Proudhon believed that worker-owned cooperatives would replace capitalist workplace and mutual banks replacing capitalist institutions and gave fierce support to labor union movements, arguing ''"every worker employed in the association [must have] an undivided share in the property of the company"'' [94]. Labor union movements and cooperative movements would form federations to allow social groups to interconnect with one another for decision-making for the common good: ''"industries are sisters; they are parts of the same body; one cannot suffer without the others sharing in its suffering. They should therefore federate, not to be absorbed and confused together, but in order to guarantee mutually the conditions of common prosperity . . . Making such an agreement will not detract from their liberty; it will simply give their liberty more security and force."'' [95] Some of the most prominent figures in the late 19th century and early 20th century labor movement, such as Dyer Lum, Joseph Labadie, and Joe Hill were individualist anarchists.
The Russian Revolution
Main articles: Russian Revolution of 1917
Anarchists participated alongside the Bolsheviks in both February and October revolutions, many anarchists initially supporting the Bolshevik coup. However, the Bolsheviks soon turned against the anarchists and other left-wing opposition, a conflict that culminated in the 1921 Kronstadt rebellion. Anarchists in central Russia were either imprisoned or driven underground or joined the victorious Bolsheviks. In the Ukraine, anarchists fought in the civil war against Whites and then the Bolsheviks as part of the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine led by Nestor Makhno, who attempted to establish an anarchist society in the region for a number of months.
Expelled American anarchists Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman were amongst those agitating in response to Bolshevik policy and the suppression of the Kronstadt uprising, before they left Russia. Both wrote classic accounts of their experiences in Russia, aiming to expose the reality of Bolshevik control. For them, Bakunin's predictions about the consequences of Marxist rule[96] had proved all too true.
The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally. Many workers and activists saw Bolshevik success as setting an example; Communist parties grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the US, for example, certain members of the major syndicalist movements of the CGT and IWW left the organizations and joined the Communist International.
In Paris, the Dielo Truda group of Russian anarchist exiles, which included Nestor Makhno, concluded that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organisation in response to the structures of Bolshevism. Their 1926 manifesto, called the Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft), Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft), , , Dielo Trouda group, FdCA, 2006, was supported by some communist anarchists, though opposed by many others. Platformist groups today include the Workers Solidarity Movement in Ireland and the North Eastern Federation of Anarchist Communists of North America.
The fight against Fascism
Main articles: Anti-fascism, Anarchism in Spain
Spain, 1936. Members of the CNT construct armoured cars to fight against the fascists in one of the collectivised factories.
In the 1920s and 1930s, the rise of fascism in Europe transformed anarchism's conflict with the state. Italy saw the first struggles between anarchists and fascists. Anarchists played a key role in the anti-fascist organisation 'Arditi del Popolo'. This group was strongest in areas with anarchist traditions and marked up numerous successful victories, including driving back Blackshirts in the anarchist stronghold of Parma in August 1922.[97]
In France, where the fascists came close to insurrection in the February 1934 riots, anarchists divided over a 'united front' policy.[98] In Spain, the CNT initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right wing election victory. But in 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the ruling class responded with an attempted coup, and the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) was underway.
In response to the army rebellion, an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain where they collectivized the land. But even before the eventual fascist victory in 1939, the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the Stalinists. The CNT leadership often appeared confused and divided, with some members controversially entering the government. According to George Orwell and other foreign observers, Stalinist-led troops suppressed the collectives and persecuted both dissident Marxists and anarchists.
Since the late 1970s some anarchists have been involved in fighting the rise of neo-fascist groups. In Germany and the United Kingdom some anarchists worked within militant anti-fascist groups alongside members of the Marxist left. They advocated directly combating fascists with physical force rather than relying on the state.
Debates within anarchism
Main articles: Issues in anarchism
Anarchism is a diverse philosophy which embodies many diverse and heterogeneous attitudes, tendencies and schools of thought; as such, disagreement over questions of values, ideology and tactics is common. The compatibility of capitalism, nationalism and religion with anarchism is widely disputed. Similarly, anarchism enjoys a complex relationship with ideologies such as Marxism, communism and anarcho-capitalism. Anarchists may be motivated by humanism, divine authority, enlightened self-interest or any number of alternative ethical doctrines.
Phenomena such as civilisation, technology (e.g. within primitivism and insurrectionary anarchism), and the democratic process may be sharply criticized within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others. Anarchist attitudes towards race, gender and the environment have changed significantly since the modern origin of the philosophy in the eighteenth century.
On a tactical level, while propaganda of the deed was a tactic used by many anarchists in the 19th century (e.g. the Nihilist movement), many contemporary anarchists espouse nonviolence, counter-economics or anti-state cryptography to bring about an anarchist society.
Recent developments within anarchism
Anarchism generates many eclectic and syncretic philosophies and movements. Since the 1960s and 1970s a number of new movements and schools have appeared:
★ 'Post-left anarchy' seeks to distance itself from the traditional "left" - communists, socialists, social democrats, etc. - and to escape the confines of ideology in general. Post-leftists argue that anarchism has been weakened by its long attachment to contrary "leftist" movements and single issue causes (anti-war, anti-nuclear, etc.). It calls for a synthesis of anarchist thought and a specifically anti-authoritarian revolutionary movement outside of the leftist milieu. Important groups and individuals associated with Post-left anarchy include: CrimethInc, the magazine '' and its former editor Jason McQuinn, Bob Black, Hakim Bey and others.
Nestor Makhno's anarchist publication ''Dielo Truda'' originated the platform model which would later influence the Especifismo tendency.
★ 'Post-anarchism' is a term coined by Saul Newman, which first received popular attention in his book ''From Bakunin to Lacan'' to refer to a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and poststructuralist thought. Subsequent to Newman's use of the term, however, it has taken on a life of its own and a wide range of ideas including autonomism, post-left anarchy, situationism, post-colonialism and Zapatismo. By its very nature post-anarchism rejects the idea that it should be a coherent set of doctrines and beliefs. As such it is difficult, if not impossible, to state with any degree of certainty who should or should not be grouped under the rubric. Nonetheless key thinkers associated with post-anarchism include Saul Newman, Todd May, Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari.
★ 'Insurrectionary anarchism' is a form of revolutionary anarchism critical of formal anarchist labor unions and federations. Insurrectionary anarchists advocate informal organization, including small affinity groups, carrying out acts of resistance in various struggles, and mass organizations called base structures, which can include exploited individuals who are not anarchists. Proponents include Wolfi Landstreicher and Alfredo M. Bonanno, author of works including "Armed Joy" and "The Anarchist Tension". This tendency is represented in the US in magazines such as ''Willful Disobedience'' and ''Killing King Abacus''.
★ 'Especifismo' is a tendency that emerged out of nearly 50 years of anarchist experiences in South America by anarchists who saw the need for an organization which was specifically anarchist. It has been summmarised as "the need for specifically anarchist organization built around a unity of ideas and praxis. The use of the specifically anarchist organization to theorize and develop strategic political and organizing work. Active involvement in and building of autonomous and popular social movements, which is described as the process of 'social insertion.'" Especifismo is considered to have come to broadly similar conclusions to the Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft), causing it to be considered a new form of platformism.
★ 'Small 'a' anarchism' (sometimes known as "little a") is a term used in two different, but not unconnected contexts. Dave Neal posited the term in opposition to big 'A' Anarchism in the article "Anarchism: Ideology or Methodology?". While big 'A' Anarchism referred to ideological Anarchists, small 'a' anarchism was applied to their methodological counterparts; those who viewed anarchism as "a way of acting, or a historical tendency against illegitimate authority." As an anti-ideological position, small 'a' anarchism shares some similarities with post-left anarchy. Another use of the term applies to groups and movements organising according to or acting in a manner consistent with anarchist principles of decentralisation, voluntary association, mutual aid, the network model, and a rejection of the notion that the ends justify the means.[99]
Hurricane Katrina
Anarchist organizations have been active in Hurricane Katrina relief efforts, with Mayday DC, Food Not Bombs, BARHC, GNN, Infoshop.org, the Common Ground Collective, Prometheus Radio, various IndyMedia organizations, and others working conjunction and separately to provide relief and aid in accordance with principles of mutual aid, solidarity, and anti-authoritarianism. [10], [11], [12], [13]
Criticisms of anarchism
Main articles: Criticisms of anarchism
The theory and practice of anarchism has been controversial since it came to prominence in the 19th century. Some of the criticisms made of anarchism come from the interests it opposes, such as governments. Other criticisms have been made internally of other anarchists or by political movements that appear to share similar goals, such as Marxism. Many question the idealist nature of anarchism, and have misgivings about its practical application in the real world. Some point to anarchism's inability to establish a viable anti-state. Some social scientists note that hierarchies appear to be synonymous with human civilization, although others note that many indigenous societies have been largely egalitarian. Others, including some adherents of Ayn Rand's Objectivism movement, claim that anarcho-capitalism is a contradiction in terms and that true capitalism requires an ultraminimal government for a military, law enforcement, and an objective judiciary. Force, according to proponents of this argument, cannot be a market service.
Also, while libertarianism is an individualist philosophy, many of the most prominent libertarian thinkers have voiced fundamental objections to anarchism.[100] For libertarian minarchists, the government's proper role is to create and enforce a framework of law that maximizes individual liberty, notably by prohibiting force and fraud. In ''Capitalism and Freedom'', economist Milton Friedman made the case for economic freedom as a precondition for political freedom, while claiming that "the need for government (...) arises because absolute freedom is impossible. However attractive anarchy may be as a philosophy, it is not feasible in a world of imperfect men".
Cultural phenomena
American intellectual and academic Noam Chomsky (1928 — ) is a proponent of libertarian socialism.
The kind of anarchism that is most easily encountered in popular culture is represented by well-known figures who publicly identify themselves as anarchists:
★ photographer Henri Cartier-Bresson[101] ★ MIT professor of linguistics Noam Chomsky ★ feminist, author and critic Germaine Greer ★ social historian Howard Zinn[102] ★ author Edward Abbey ★ author and speaker Murray Bookchin ★ author and philosopher Robert Anton Wilson ★ film-maker John Milius ★ graphic novelist Alan Moore ★ UFC fighter and champion Jeff Monson ★ actor, film director, writer and comedian Hans Alfredson ★ rapper and social activist Emcee Lynx ★ comedian and political activist Mark Thomas | ;Related articles ★ Anarcho-punk ★ List of anarchist musicians ★ Crypto-anarchism ★ Cypherpunk ★ Anarchism and the arts ★ List of fictional anarchists |
See also
Concepts
★ Anarchist economics
★ Anarchist symbolism
★ Consensus Democracy
★ Direct Democracy
★ Major conflicts within anarchist thought
★ Past and present anarchist communities
Lists
★ List of anarchist books
★ List of anarchist communities
★ List of anarchist concepts
★ List of anarchist movements by region
★ List of anarchist organizations
★ List of anarchist periodicals
Notes and references
1. Malatesta, Errico, ''Towards Anarchism''.
2. Bakunin, Mikhail, ''God and the State'', pt. 2.; Tucker, Benjamin, ''State Socialism and Anarchism''.; Kropotkin, Piotr, ''Anarchism: its Philosophy and Ideal''; Malatesta, Errico, ''Towards Anarchism''; Bookchin, Murray, ''Anarchism: Past and Present'', pt. 4; An Introduction to Anarchism by Liz A. Highleyman[1]
3. Carl Slevin "anarchism" The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press, 2003.
4. Anarchy Merriam-Webster's Online dictionary
5. Kropotkine, Petr Alekseevich. ''Anarchism: A Collection of Revolutionary Writings'', Courier Dover Publications, 2002, p.5
6. The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought, R.B. Fowler, , , Western Political Quarterly, 1972
7. Sylvan, Richard. Anarchism. A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy, editors Goodwin, Robert E. and Pettit, Philip. Blackwell Publishing, 1995, p.231
8. Anarchism. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 31
9. Carl Slevin "anarchism" The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press, 2003. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.
10. Peter Kropotkin, "Anarchism", from The Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1910
11.
12. Sheehan, Sean. ''Anarchism'', London: Reaktion Books Ltd., 2004. pg. 85
13. Godwin himself attributed the first anarchist writing to Edmund Burke's Vindication of Natural Society. "Most of the above arguments may be found much more at large in Burke's Vindication of Natural Society; a treatise in which the evils of the existing political institutions are displayed with incomparable force of reasoning and lustre of eloquence…" - footnote, Ch. 2 ''Political Justice'' by William Godwin.
14. Godwin said: "…however we may be obliged to admit it as a necessary evil for the present, it behoves us, as the friends of reason and the human species, to admit as little of it as possible, and carefully to observe whether, in consequence of the gradual illumination of the human mind, that little may not hereafter be diminished." in "An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice"
15.
16. "everything understood by the term co-operation is in some sense an evil." – In ''Britannica Concise Encyclopedia''. Retrieved December 7 2006, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online
17. Daniel Guerin, ''Anarchism: From Theory to Practice'' (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970).
18. Proudhon, ''Solution to the Social Problem'', ed. H. Cohen (New York: Vanguard Press, 1927), p.45.
19. Proudon, Pierre-Joseph. The Federal Principle. "The notion of ''anarchy'' in politics is just as rational and positive as any other. It means that once industrial functions have taken over from political functions, then business transactions alone produce the social order."
20. ''Selected Writings'', Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
21. "A member of a community," ''The Mutualist''; this 1826 series criticized Owen's proposals, and has been attributed to Josiah Warren or another dissident Owenite in the same circles; Wilbur, Shawn, 2006, "More from the 1826 "Mutualist"?"
22. [3]
23.
24. Avrich, Paul. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America'', Princeton University Press 1996 ISBN 0-691-04494-5, p.6
Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought, Blackwell Publishing 1991 ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p.11
25. Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph ''What is Property?'' (1840), p. 281
26. Greene, William B. "Communism — Capitalism — Socialism", ''Equality'' (1849)[4], p. 59.
27. Warren published the periodical "The Peaceful Revolutionist" in 1833, seven years before Proudhon's "What is Property."
28. "While more learned men lost faith in utopias and in human nature when the New Harmony experiment failed, Warren became more trusting than before in man's intelligence and perfectibility." - Native American Anarchism, pg. 94, Eunice Schuster
29. Dana, Charles A. Proudhon and his "Bank of the People" (1848).
30. Tucker, Benjamin R., "On Picket Duty", Liberty (Not the Daughter but the Mother of Order) (1881-1908); 5 January 1889; 6, 10; APS Online
pg. 1
31. Anarchism in the United States, Madison, Charles A., , , Journal of the History of Ideas, 1945
32. Ward, Colin. Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 2
33. Heywood, Andrew, Key Concepts in Politics, Palgrave, ISBN 0-312-23381-7, 2000, p. 46
34. Leopold, David "Max Stirner", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2006 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), forthcoming URL =
35. Miller, David. "anarchism." 1987. The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought. Blackwell Publishing. p 11
36. Heider, Ulrike. ''Anarchism: Left, Right and Green'', San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1994, pp. 95-96
37. Woodcock. George. 2004. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. Broadview Press. p 20
38. Emma Goldman: Chronology 1901-1919
39. Johnson, Ellwood. ''The Goodly Word: The Puritan Influence in America Literature'', Clements Publishing, 2005, p. 138: "…a political theory that has usually been named 'anarchist individualism'...The theory, however, does not advocate anarchism in the sense, for example, of the destruction of institutions; its purpose is only description. Emersonian and Thoreauavian anarchism does not call for any specifiable program of rebellion or destruction of social institutions, but merely asserts one abiding truth…" ''Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences'', edited by Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman, Alvin Saunders Johnson, 1937, p. 12: "The noblest and most eloquent statement of this essentially anarchist individualism came a generation later in Thoreau's essay on Civil Disobedience" Bool, Henry, Henry Bool's Apology for His Jeffersonian Anarchism'', 1901: "I am a believer in the doctrines of the individualistic school of Anarchists, to which Garrison, Emerson, Proudhon, Thoreau, Spooner, Andrews, Warren and Tucker belong."
40. "Anarchism is a word without meaning, unless it includes the liberty of the individual to control his product or whatever his product has brought him through exchange in a free market - that is, private property. Whoever denies private property is of necessity an Archist." "ANARCHISM AND PROPERTY", by Benjamin Tucker in "The New Freewoman", November 15 1913
41. Benjamin Tucker, "defense is a service like any other service; that it is labor both useful and desired, and therefore an economic commodity subject to the law of supply and demand; that in a free market this commodity would be furnished at the cost of production; that, competition prevailing, patronage would go to those who furnished the best article at the lowest price; that the production and sale of this commodity are now monopolized by the State; and that the State, like almost all monopolists, charges exorbitant prices" "Instead of a Book" (1893)
"Anarchism does not exclude prisons, officials, military, or other symbols of force. It merely demands that non-invasive men shall not be made the victims of such force. Anarchism is not the reign of love, but the reign of justice. It does not signify the abolition of force-symbols but the application of force to real invaders." Tucker, Benjamin. ''Liberty'' October 19 1891.
42. Schwartzman, Jack. Ingalls, Hanson, and Tucker: Nineteenth-Century American Anarchists. American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol. 62, No. 5 (November, 2003). p. 325
43. Tucker, Benjamin. Labor and Its Pay, from Individual Liberty: Selections from the Writings of Benjamin T. Tucker
44. "When Warren and Proudhon, in prosecuting their search for justice to labor, came face to face with the obstacle of class monopolies, they saw that these monopolies rested upon Authority, and concluded that the thing to be done was, not to strengthen this Authority and thus make monopoly universal, but to utterly uproot Authority and give full sway to the opposite principle, Liberty, by making competition, the antithesis of monopoly, universal." Tucker, Benjamin ''State Socialism and Anarchism'' (Liberty 10 March 1888)
45. " carrying on business for themselves or from assuming relations between themselves as employer and employee if they prefer." Tucker, Benjamin. ''Liberty or Authority''
46. Spooner, Lysander. ''The Law of Intellectual Property''
47. Watner, Carl. in The Libertarian Forum. March 1975. Volume VII, No 3. ISSN 0047-4517. pp. 5-6.
48. Carl Watner. , Liberty. Journal of Libertarian Studies, Vol. 1, No. 4, p. 308
49. Brooks, Frank H. 1994. The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881-1908). Transaction Publishers. p. 75.
50. Schwartzman, Jack. Ingalls, Hanson, and Tucker: Nineteenth-Century American Anarchists. American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol. 62, No. 5 (November, 2003). p. 325
51. Ostergaard, Geoffrey. 1991. Resisting the Nation State: The Pacifist and Anarchist Traditions. Peace Pledge Union. ISBN 0902680358
52. Levy, Carl. Anarchism. Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007. http://uk.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568770_1/Anarchism.html
53. Bakunin's associate, James Guillaume, put it this way in his essay, ''Ideas on Social Organization''(1876):
54. Bakunin, Mikhail; ''Statism and Anarchism'':
55. Bakunin, Mikhail. Bakunin on Anarchism. Black Rose Books. 1980. p. 369
56. Graeber, David and Grubacic, Andrej. ''Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century''
57. De l'être-humain mâle et femelle - Lettre à P.J. Proudhon par Joseph Déjacque (in French)
58. Miller. ''Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought'', Blackwell Publishing (1991) ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p. 12
59.
★ Kropotkin, Peter '', 1998 paperback, London: Freedom Press. ISBN 0-900384-36-0, also at Project Gutenburg
★ Kropotkin, Peter ''The Conquest of Bread'', first published 1892, also at Anarchy Archives
★ Kropotkin, Peter ''Fields, Factories and Workshops'', available at Anarchy Archives
★ Bookchin, Murray ''Post Scarcity Anarchism'' (1971 and 2004) ISBN 1-904859-06-2.
60. "[t]he landlord owes his riches to the poverty of the peasants, and the wealth of the capitalist comes from the same source" – Kropotkin, "The Conquest of Bread" op cit
61. Kropotkin, Peter. ''Words of a Rebel'', p99.
62.
63. Puente, Isaac "Libertarian Communism" (The Cienfuegos Press Anarchist Review' #6 Orkney 1982)[5]
64. see, for example, Christopher Gray, ''Leaving the Twentieth Century'', p. 88.
65. Emma Goldman, ''Anarchism and Other Essays'', p. 50.
66. ''Anarchosyndicalism'' by Rudolph Rocker ''retrieved 7 September 2006
67. "This volume honors the foremost contemporary exponent of free-market anarchism. One contributor describes Murray Rothbard as 'the most ideologically committed zero-State academic economist on earth'." Review by Lawrence H. White of Man, Economy, and liberty: Essays in honor of Murray N. Rothbard, published in Journal of Economic Literature, Vol XXVIII, June 1990, page 664
68. Most anarchists today are anti-capitalist, and therefore reject anarcho-capitalism, sometimes as a form of anarchism altogether. For example,
★ An Anarchist FAQ, which is hosted on most major anarchist websites, is in direct response to the claims that anarcho-capitalism is a form of anarchism, including individualist anarchism.
★ Anarchist Noam Chomsky says that the terms "libertarian socialism" and "anarchism" are interchangeable (Maher, John. ''Introducing Chomsky'', Icon Books (2004), p.134.)
★ Marshall, Peter ''Demanding the Impossible'', (p. 565) ("few anarchists would accept the 'anarcho-capitalists' into the anarchist camp since they do not share a concern for economic equality and social justice… Anarcho-capitalists, even if they do reject the State, might therefore best be called right-wing libertarians rather than anarchists.")
However, others acknowledge anarcho-capitalism to be a form of anarchism, and some classify it to be related to, or a form of, individualist anarchism. Sources discussing this include:
★ Outhwaite, William. ''The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought'', ''Anarchism'' entry, p. 21, 2002.
★ Bottomore, Tom. '' Dictionary of Marxist Thought'', ''Anarchism'' entry, 1991.
★ Avrich, Paul. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America, Abridged Paperback Edition (1996), p. 282
★ Levy, Carl. Anarchism. MS Encarta (UK).
★ Heywood, Andrew. ''Politics: Second Edition'', Palgrave (2002), p. 61
★ Sylvan, Richard. Anarchism. A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy, editors Goodin, Robert E. and Pettit, Philip. Blackwell Publishing, 1995, p.231
★ Kearney, Richard. ''Continental Philosophy in the 20th Century'', Routledge (UK) (2003), p. 336
★ Sargent, Lyman Tower. ''Extremism in America: A Reader'', NYU Press (1995), p. 11
★ Dahl, Robert Alan. ''Democracy and Its Critics. Yale University Press (1991), p. 38
★ Goodwin, Barbara. ''Using Political Ideas'', Fourth Edition, John Wiley & Sons (1987), p. 137 ("Although many anarchists today still subscribe to the values of Bakunin and Kropotkin, there are two new, divergent currents of anarchist thinking. One is anarcho-capitalism, a form of libertarian anarchism… Their true place is in the group of right-wing libertarians… Many who call themselves anarchists today preserve some of the older doctrines" pp. 137-138)
69. Sargent, Lyman Tower. Extremism in American: A Reader, NYU Press, 1995, p. 11; Also, Tormey, Simon, Anti-Capitalism, A Beginner's Guide, Oneworld Publications, 2004, p. 118-119 "Pro-capitalist anarchism, is as one might expect, particularly prevalent in the U.S. where it feeds on the strong individualist and libertarian currents that have always been part of the American political imaginary. To return to the point, however, there are individualist anarchists who are most certainly not anti-capitalist and there are those who may well be."
70. "anarcho-capitalism." Oxford English Dictionary. 2004. Oxford University Press
71. DeLeon, David. The American as Anarchist: Reflections on Indigenous Radicalism. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978, p. 127 and Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought, 1987, ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p. 290: "A student and disciple of the Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises, Rothbard combined the laissez-faire economics of his teacher with the absolutist views of human rights and rejection of the state he had absorbed from studying the individualist American anarchists of the nineteenth century such as Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker. (Rothbard himself is on the anarchist wing of the movement.)"
72. Rothbard, Murray. The Spooner-Tucker Doctrine: An Economist's View
73. Murray Rothbard, A Future of Peace and Capitalism; Murray Rothbard, Left and Right: The Prospects for Liberty.
74. Rothbard, Murray (1969) The Libertarian Forum Vol. I, No. VI (June 15 1969) Retrieved 5 August 2006
75. Friedman, David. The Machinery of Freedom: Guide to a Radical Capitalism. Harper & Row. pp. 144-145 "Instead of corporation there are large groups of entrepreneurs related by trade, not authority. Each sells, not his time, but what his time produces."
76. ''Exclusive Interview With Murray Rothbard'' The New Banner: A Fortnightly Libertarian Journal (25 February 1972)
77. "Left" in its political sense has various and shifting usages. In the seminal agorist work, The New Libertarian Manifesto, agorism is repeatedly described as left, presumably because it opposes the Old Order and is critical of political capitalism. Also, the agorist-inspired coalition Movement for the Libertarian Left and related groups use "left" in this manner. Similarly, Kevin Carson's Mutualism.org self-identifies as left libertarian, e.g. "Other anarchist subgroups, and the libertarian left generally, share these ideas to some extent."[7]
78. Nocella, Anthony. Best, Stephen. 'Igniting a Revolution: Voices in Defense of the Earth' AK Press (2006) pg.23
79. Esenwein, George Richard "Anarchist Ideology and the Working Class Movement in Spain, 1868-1898" [p. 135]
80. Avrich, Paul. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America''. Princeton University Press, 1996, p. 6
81. Quoted in Avrich, Paul. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America''. Princeton University Press, 1996, p. 7
82. "The best thing ordinary workingmen or women could do was to organise their industry to get rid of money altogether . . . Let them produce together, co-operatively rather than as employer and employed; let them fraternise group by group, let each use what he needs of his own product, and deposit the rest in the storage-houses, and let those others who need goods have them as occasion arises." Voltairine De Cleyre, "Why I Am an Anarchist"
83. "There is nothing un-Anarchistic about any of [these systems] until the element of compulsion enters and obliges unwilling persons to remain in a community whose economic arrangements they do not agree to."
84. quoted by Max Nettlau, ''A Short History of Anarchism'' [p. 198-9]
85. "I have no prefix or adjective for my anarchism. I think syndicalism can work, as can free-market anarcho-capitalism, anarcho-communism, even anarcho-hermits, depending on the situation. But I do have a strong individualist streak.
– From an essay by Fred Woodworth in Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in American by Paul Avrich (2006). Page 475
86. The incorporation of a plumbline is possibly derived from Amos 7:7-9 (King James Version) where it represents a metaphorical moral test. Although the plumbline, level and circle all have their place in the symbols of Freemasonry, they are not unique to Freemasonry, and there is no historical reason to associate regular or recognized Freemasonry with this crest or the organization.
87. Statism and Anarchy, , Mikhail, Bakunin, Cambridge University Press, 1991, ISBN 0-521-36973-8
88. Resolutions from the St. Imier Congress, in ''Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas'', Vol. 1, p.100 [8]
89. Carley, Mark "Trade union membership 1993-2003" (International:SPIRE Associates 2004)
90. Benjamin Tucker, Liberty, 15/4/1881
91. Benjamin Tucker, Liberty, #19, 1882
92. The Individualist Anarchists, p. 276
93. The Individualist Anarchists, pp. 283-284
94. quoted by James J. Martin. Men Against the State, p. 223
95. Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph. The Principle of Federation, p. 70, p. 67 and p. 72
96. "You can see quite well that behind all the democratic and socialistic phrases and promises in Marx’s program for the State lies all that constitutes the true despotic and brutal nature of all states, regardless of their form of government." Bakunin, Mikhail (1872) "On the International Workingmen's Association and Karl Marx" (Bakunin on Anarchy, translated and edited by Sam Dolgoff, 1971)[9]
97. Holbrow, Marnie, "Daring but Divided" (''Socialist Review'' November 2002)
98. Berry, David, "Fascism or Revolution" (''Le Libertaire'' August 1936)
99. "the rejection of any idea that the end justifies the means, let alone that the business of a revolutionary is to seize state power and then begin imposing one's vision at the point of a gun."Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century by David Graeber
and Andrej Grubacic
100. http://www.heartland.org/Article.cfm?artId=10711
101. Video interview with Charlie Rose, July 6, 2000
102. "Something of an anarchist", War is the Health of the State: An Interview with Howard Zinn, 2003
External links
★ "An Anarchist FAQ" at Infoshop.org
★ Anarchy Archives - information relating to famous anarchists. This includes many of their books and other publications.
★ "Zinelibrary.net" hundreds of anarchist zines to download, print and distribute
★ Anarkismo.net - Multilingual anarchist news site run by over a dozen 'platformist' organisations on five continents
★ at the Daily Bleed's Anarchist Encyclopedia - 1,500+ anarchists listed, with short bios, links & dedicated pages
★ "Anarchism", BBC Radio 4 program, In Our Time, Thursday December 7 2006. Hosted by Melvyn Bragg of the BBC, with John Keane, Professor of Politics at Westminster University, Ruth Kinna, Senior Lecturer in Politics at Loughborough University, and Peter Marshall, philosopher and historian.
★ "www.anarchyisorder.org" for 'Principles, propositions and discussions for Land and Freedom', an anarchive with user-friendly versions of anarchist texts.
★ Anarchist virtual library 768 books, booklets and texts about Anarchism.
★ Anarchism, Representation, and Culture by Jesse Cohn
★ Infoshop.org - anarchist news and information site.
★ AnarchismToday.org - An anarchist community site, featuring forums, blogs, and an IRC chat server.
★ A-infos "a multi-lingual news service by, for, and about anarchists"
★ Anarchist Web Resources Categorised open list
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