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The 'Anishinaabe language' or the 'Ojibwe group of languages' or 'Anishinaabemowin' ' in Eastern Ojibwe syllabics) is the second most commonly spoken Native language in Canada (after Cree), and the third most spoken in North America (behind Navajo and Cree). It is spoken by the Anishinaabeg who are the Algonquin, Nipissing, Ojibwa (Chippewa), Saulteaux, Mississaugas and Odawa (Ottawa). Very closely related to ''Anishinaabemowin'' and often included in this group are the Anishinini language and the Potawatomi language. As their fur trading with the French increased the Ojibwas’ power, the Anishinaabe language became the trade language of the Great Lakes region, and was for hundreds of years an extremely significant presence in the northern United States.

Contents

Classification

Geographic distribution

Lingua franca

Dialects

Phonology

Grammar

Vocabulary

Writing system

Double Vowel System

Examples

Text

Translation

Gloss

Well-known speakers of Anishinaabemowin

See also

References

External links

Classification

''Anishinaabemowin'', often referred to as the "Ojibwe language," is an Algonquian language, of the Algic family of languages, and is descended from Proto-Algonquian. Among its sister languages are Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Cree, Fox, Menominee, Potawatomi, and Shawnee. The Algic family contains the Algonquian languages and the so-called "Ritwan" languages, Wiyot and Yurok. Ojibwe is frequently referred to as a "Central Algonquian" language; however, Central Algonquian is an areal grouping rather than a genetic one. Among Algonquian languages, only the Eastern Algonquian languages constitute a true genetic subgroup. This article deals primarily with the Southwestern Ojibwe dialect spoken in the northern United States, around Minnesota and Wisconsin. Therefore, some of the descriptions given here will not necessarily hold true for other dialects of the Anishinaabe language, unless an example is specifically given.

Geographic distribution

The Anishinaabe language is spoken by around 10,000 people in the United States and by as many as 45,000 in Canada, making it one of the largest Algic languages by speakers. The various dialects are spoken in northern Montana, northern North Dakota, northern Minnesota, northern Wisconsin, Michigan and northern Indiana in the United States, and north into eastern British Columbia, southern Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, southern Manitoba, Ontario, and west-central Quebec in Canada.

Lingua franca

As fur trading with the French increased the Ojibwas’ power, the Anishinaabe language became the trade language of the Great Lakes region, and was for hundreds of years an extremely significant presence in the northern United States and across all of Canada.
The Anishinaabe language replaced the Wendat language as the ''lingua franca'' of the Great Lakes region sometime during the middle of 17th century and remained as a ''lingua franca'' in the region until replaced by English in the late 19th century. Consequently, various dialects of the Anishinaabe language were understood by non-Anishinaabe peoples of the Great Lakes as well as by other peoples beyond the Great Lakes. At the height of its use as the major diplomatic and trade language of the region, the Anishinaabe language was found from the Ohio River valley in the south to James Bay in the north and from Ottawa River in the east to the Rocky Mountains in the west. Due to the status being the ''lingua franca'', the Anishinaabe language greatly influenced other Algonquian languages, such as the Menomini language, as well as spurring the creation of a pidgin language known as "Broken Ojibwa".

Dialects

Main articles: Anishinaabe language dialects

The Anishinaabe language has quite a few divergent dialects. The primary ones are Nipissing and Algonquin, Plains Ojibwe (Saulteaux), Eastern Ojibwe (Mississaugas), Northern Ojibwe (Northwestern Ojibwa/Ontario Saulteaux), Odaawaa (Ottawa), Severn Ojibwe (Oji-Cree/Northern Ojibwa), and Southwestern Ojibwe (Chippewa). Though now considered a separate language, due to relatively recent diversion from the Anishinaabe language, the Potawatomi language still exhibit strong characteristics to the Anishinaabe language. During the Fur Trade, a pidgin form of the Anishinaabemowin, known as "Broken Ojibwa" or "Broken Oghibbeway", developed, relying on Anishinaabemowin for its vocabulary. It is often debated whether the Bungee language, a mixed language, is a mixture of the Anishinaabe language with other languages, or a mixture of a Cree language with other languages.

Phonology

:''Main article: Ojibwe phonology''
Ojibwe group of languages generally have 18 consonants. Obstruents are often said to have a lenis/fortis contrast, where those written as voiceless are pronounced more strongly, significantly longer in duration, and often aspirated or pre-aspirated, while those written as voiced are pronounced less strongly and significantly shorter in duration. For many communities, however, the distinction has become a simple voiced/voiceless one.
There are three short vowels, , and three corresponding long vowels, , as well as a fourth long vowel which lacks a corresponding short vowel, . The short vowels differ in quality as well as quantity from the long vowels, are phonetically closer to , , and . is pronounced for many speakers, and is for many . There are also nasal vowels, which are comparatively rare.
With regards to stress, the Anishinaabe language divides words into metrical "feet," each foot containing a strong syllable and (if two-syllables long) a weak syllable. The strong syllables all receive at least secondary stress. In general, the strong syllable in the third foot from the end of a word receives the primary stress. In many dialects, unstressed vowels are frequently lost or change quality.

Grammar

:''Main article: Ojibwe grammar''
Like many Native American languages, the Anishinaabe language is polysynthetic, meaning it exhibits a great deal of synthesis and a very high morpheme-to-word ratio. It is agglutinating, and thus builds up words by stringing morpheme after morpheme together, rather than having several affixes, each of which carry numerous different pieces of information.
There is a distinction between two different types of third person, the ''proximate'' (the third person deemed more important or in-focus) and the ''obviative'' (the third person deemed less important or out-of-focus). Nouns can be singular or plural, and one of two genders, animate or inanimate. Separate personal pronouns exist, but are usually used for emphasis; they distinguish inclusive and exclusive first person plurals.
Verbs constitute the most complex word class. Verbs are inflected for one of three ''orders'' (''indicative'', the default, ''conjunct'', used for participles and in subordinate clauses, and ''imperative'', used with commands), as negative or affirmative, and for the person, number, animacy, and proximate/obviative status of both its subject and object, as well as for several different ''modes'' (including the ''dubitative'' and ''preterit'') and tenses.

Vocabulary

Although it does contain a few loans from English (''gaapii'', "coffee," ''maam(aa)'', "mom") and French (''naapaane'', "flour" (from ''la farine'', "the flour"), ''ni-tii'', "tea" (from ''le thé'', "the tea")), in general, the Anishinaabe language is notable for its relative lack of borrowing from other languages. Instead, speakers far prefer to create words for new concepts from existing vocabulary. For example in ''Ojibwemowin'', "airplane" is ''bemisemagak'', literally "thing that flies" (from ''bimisemagad'', "to fly"), and "battery" is ''ishkode-makakoons'', literally "little fire-box" (from ''ishkode'', "fire," and ''makak'', "box"). Even "coffee" is called ''makade-mashkikiwaaboo'' ("black liquid-medicine") by many speakers, rather than ''gaapii''.
Cases like "battery" and "coffee" also demonstrate the often great difference between the literal meanings of the individual morphemes in a word, and the overall meaning of the entire word.

Writing system

:''Main article: Ojibwe writing systems''
''Ojibwemowin'' is written using a syllabary, which is usually said to have been developed by missionary James Evans around 1840 and based on Pitman's shorthand. In the United States, the language is most often written phonemically with Roman characters. Syllabics are primarily used in Canada. The newest Roman character-based writing system is the Double Vowel System, devised by Charles Fiero. Although there is no standard orthography, the Double Vowel System is quickly gaining popularity among language teachers in the United States and Canada because of its ease of use.

Double Vowel System

The Double Vowel System consists of three short vowels, four long vowels, 18 consonants and 1 nasal, represented with the following Roman letters:

:a aa b ch d e g ' h i ii j k m n ny o oo p s sh t w y z zh

This system is called "Double Vowel" from the fact that the long vowel correspondences to the short vowels , and are written with a doubled value. In this system, the nasal "ny" as a final element is instead written as "nh." The allowable consonant clusters are , , , , , , , , , , and .

Examples

This ''Ojibwemowin'' example text is taken, with permission, from the first four lines of Niizh Ikwewag, a story originally told by Earl Nyholm, on Professor Brian Donovan of Bemidji State University's webpage.

Text

# ''Aabiding gii-ayaawag niizh ikwewag: mindimooyenh, odaanisan bezhig.''
# ''Iwidi Chi-achaabaaning akeyaa gii-onjibaawag.''
# ''Inashke naa mewinzha gii-aawan, mii eta go imaa sa wiigiwaaming gaa-taawaad igo.''
# ''Mii dash iwapii, aabiding igo gii-awi-bagida'waawaad, giigoonyan wii-amwaawaad.''

Translation

# Once there were two women: an old lady, and one of her daughters.
# They were from over there towards Inger.
# See now, it was long ago; they just lived there in a wigwam.
# And at that time, once they went net-fishing; they intended to eat fish.

Gloss

'Aabiding'	'gii-ayaawag'			'niizh'	'ikwewag:'		'mindimooyenh,'	'odaanisan'			'bezhig.'
aabiding	gii-	ayaa	-wag	niizh	ikwe	-wag	mindimooyenh,	o-	daanis	-an	bezhig.
once	PAST-	be in a certain place	-3PL	two	woman	-3PL	old woman,	3SG.POSS-	daughter	-OBV	one.
''Once''	''they were in a certain place''			''two''	''women:''		''old woman,''	''her daughter''			''one.''

'Iwidi'	'Chi-achaabaaning'			'akeyaa'	'gii-onjibaawag.'
iwidi	chi-	achaabaan	-ing	akeyaa	gii-	onjibaa	-wag.
over there	big-	bowstring	-LOC	that way	PAST-	come from	-3PL.
''Over there''	''by Inger'' (lit: ''by Big-Bowstring [River]'')			''that way''	''they came from there.

'Inashke'

'naa'

'mewinzha'

'gii-aawan,'

'mii eta go'

'imaa'

'sa'

'wiigiwaaming'

'gaa-taawaad'

'igo.'

inashke

naa

mewinzha

gii-

aawan

mii

eta

go

imaa

sa

wiigiwaam

-ing

gaa-

daa

-waad

igo.

look

now

long ago

PAST-

be

so

only

EMPH

there

EMPH

wigwam

-LOC

PAST.CONJ-

live

-3PL.CONJ

EMPH.

''Look''

''now''

''long ago''

''it was,''

''only''

''there''

''so''

''in a wigwam''

''that they lived''

''just then.''

'Mii dash'

'iwapii,'

'aabiding'

'igo'

'gii-awi-bagida'waawaad,'

'giigoonyan'

'wii-amwaawaad.'

mii

dash

iw-

-apii

aabiding

igo

gii-

awi-

bagida'waa

-waad,

giigoonh

-yan

wii-

amw

-aawaad.

it is that

CONTR

that-

-then

once

EMPH

PAST-

go and-

fish with a net

-3PL.CONJ

fish

-OBV

DESD-

eat

-3PL/OBV.CONJ

''And then''

''then,''

''once''

''just then''

''that they went and fished with a net''

''those fish''

''that they are going to eat those''

Abbreviations:

''3''	third person
''SG''	singular
''PL''	plural
''POSS''	possessive
''OBV''	obviative
''LOC''	locative
''EMPH''	emphatic particle
''CONJ''	conjunct order
''CONTR''	contrastive particle
''FUT''	future
''DESD''	desiderative

Well-known speakers of Anishinaabemowin

★ Basil H. Johnston

★ Maude Kegg

★ Jim Northrup

See also

★ Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics

★ Algonquian languages

★ List of languages

★ Ojibwa

★ Anishinaabe

★ Anishinaabe language dialects

★ Ojibwe phonology

★ Ojibwe grammar

★ Ojibwe writing systems

★

References

★ Mithun, Marianne. 1999. ''The Languages of Native North America''. Cambridge: University Press.

★ Nichols, John D. and Earl Nyholm. 1995. ''A Concise Dictionary of Minnesota Ojibwe''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

★ Rhodes, Richard A. 1985. ''Eastern Ojibwa-Chippewa-Ottawa Dictionary''. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

★ Valentine, J. Randolph. 2001. ''Nishnaabemwin Reference Grammar''. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

External links

★ Ojibwe Language Society

★ Ojibwe Language Group

★ Rand Valentine's introduction to Ojibwe

★ Grammar, lessons, and dictionaries

★ Freelang Ojibwe Dictionary — Freeware off-line dictionary, updated with additional entries every 6-10 weeks.

★ Language Museum report for Ojibwe

★ Aboriginal Languages of Canada — With data on speaker populations

★ Language Geek Page on Ojibwe — Syllabary fonts and keyboard emulators are also available from this site.

★ Ojibwe Toponyms

★ Our Languages: Nakawē (Saskatchewan Indian Cultural Centre)

★ Niizh Ikwewag — A short story in Ojibwe, originally told by Earl Nyholm, emeritus professor of Ojibwe at Bemidji State University.

★ Ethnologue report for Ojibwe

★ Native Languages: A Support Document for the Teaching of Language Patterns, Ojibwe and Cree

★ The Linguasphere Register. 1999 / 2000 edition. Algic sector.