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EspañolANTI-GRAVITY
: ''For the troupe of gymnasts and performance artists, see AntiGravity.''
'Anti-gravity' is the hypothetical idea, often considered pseudoscientific, of creating a place or object that is free from the force of gravity. It does not refer to countering the gravitational force by an opposing force of a different nature, as a helicopter or helium balloon does; instead, anti-gravity requires that the fundamental causes of the force be made either not present or not applicable to the place or object through some kind of technological intervention.
It is a recurring theme in science fiction, particularly in the context of spacecraft propulsion. Often a special "gravity shield" or "anti-gravity force field" is employed, allowing a spacecraft to maneuver in a gravitational field free from the effects of its force.
The term "anti-gravity" is sometimes used to refer to hypothetical reactionless propulsion drives based on certain solutions to general relativity, although these do not oppose gravity as such. It is also used in reference to the accelerating expansion of the universe.
According to the current widely accepted physical theories, verified in experiments, and according to the major directions of physical research, it is considered highly unlikely that anti-gravity is possible [1][2][3].
Some science fiction stories postulate the existence of a substance partially or completely opaque to gravity. Placing this substance underneath an object reduces or eliminates its weight, allowing it to float away from the Earth's surface with a relatively small expenditure of energy.
There are strong reasons to believe that no such substance can exist. Placing such a substance underneath one half of an alternator mounted on a horizontal axis would induce a constant torque on the rotor from the weight differential, producing a limitless supply of energy in violation of the first law of thermodynamics. Additionally, ordinary opaque substances block electromagnetic waves, not static electromagnetic fields. It follows from Gauss's law that static fields (such as Earth's gravitational field) cannot be blocked.
Static electromagnetic fields cannot be blocked, but they can be canceled by an opposing field associated with an opposite electric charge. The gravitational charge is mass, and its opposite would be negative mass. Both general relativity and Newtonian gravity appear to predict that negative mass would produce a repulsive gravitational field. In particular, Sir Hermann Bondi (1957) proposed a form of negative gravitational mass that could comply with the strong equivalence principle of general relativity theory and the Newtonian laws of conservation of linear momentum and energy. Bondi’s proof yielded singularity free solutions for the relativity equations. In July 1988, Robert L. Forward (1990) presented a paper at the AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE 24TH Joint Propulsion Conference that proposed a Bondi negative gravitational mass propulsion system. That concept was investigated by the NASA Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program under the name of the Diametric drive.
Zero point field theory (Haisch & Rueda, 1997) and the Standard Model of particle physics, which describes all presently known forms of matter, does not permit negative mass as well. Cosmological dark matter (and possibly dark energy) may consist of particles outside the Standard Model whose nature is unknown; but their mass is known — since they were discovered by their gravitational effects — and is positive.
According to the standard cosmological model there is a positive cosmological constant, driving an accelerating expansion of the universe. Since this opposes the attractive effect of ordinary matter, it is sometimes called anti-gravity. This effect is noticeable only on very large scales, much larger than even the local supercluster of galaxies.
The cosmological constant, sometimes called dark energy, is usually attributed to the vacuum energy (rather than to particles), possibly due to Casimir effect. Despite the name, it is in fact a positive vacuum energy.
There are solutions of the field equations of general relativity which describe "warp drives" (such as the famous Alcubierre metric) and stable, traversable wormholes. This by itself is not significant, since ''any'' spacetime geometry is a solution of the field equations for some configuration of the stress-energy tensor field (see exact solutions in general relativity). General relativity does not constrain the geometry of spacetime unless outside constraints are placed on the stress-energy tensor. Warp-drive and traversable-wormhole geometries are well-behaved in most areas, but require regions of exotic matter; thus they are excluded as solutions if the stress-energy tensor is limited to known forms of matter (including dark matter and dark energy).
There have been a few claims in the literature of experimental discovery of anti-gravity effects. As of 2007 none of them are widely accepted by the physics community.
A paper by Tajmar et al in 2006 describes the experimental detection of an anti-gravity field above a rotating superconductor, proportional to the angular acceleration of the superconductor.[4] A subsequent paper claims to explain the phenomenon in terms of the nonzero cosmological constant.[5] Neither the experimental results nor the theoretical explanation are widely accepted.
In July 2007, R.D. Graham and other researchers of the Canterbury Ring Laser Group, New Zealand, reported results from an attempt to test the same effect with a larger rotating superconductor, shaped as a disk rather than as a ring. They report no indication of any effect within the measurement accuracy of the experiment. Given the conditions of the experiment, the Canterbury group conclude that if any such 'Tajmar' effect exists, it is at least 21 times smaller than predicted according to the theory proposed by Tajmar in 2006.[6]
Tajmar and his colleagues have acknowledged that the effect reported by Graham and his colleagues is significantly smaller than theirs, and also acknowledge that the theoretical model they proposed in 2006 is now falsified. They still claim there is a signal that can be detected in new experiment, above experimental noise, for which some non-classical explanation is required. It is of the opposite sign to their own measurements, so they speculate that there may be an association with location on the Earth, since the New Zealand group is in the Southern hemisphere.[7]
★ Magnetic levitation suspends an object against gravity by use of electromagnetic forces. While visually impressive, gravitation itself functions normally in such devices. Critics of various alleged anti-gravity devices often suggest that unusual effects observed around them are due to electromagnetism.
★ A tidal force causes objects to move along diverging paths near a massive body (such as a planet or star), producing effects that seem like repulsion or disruptive forces when observed locally. This is not anti-gravity. In Newtonian mechanics, the tidal force is the effect of the larger object's gravitational force being different at the differing locations of the diverging bodies. In Einsteinian gravity, the tidal force is the effect of the diverging bodies following different paths in the negatively curved spacetime around the larger body.
★ Large amounts of normal matter can be used to produce a gravitational field that compensates for the effects of another gravitational field, though the entire assembly will still be attracted to the source of the larger field. Physicist Robert L. Forward proposed using lumps of degenerate matter to locally compensate for the tidal forces near a neutron star.
The United States government and aerospace contractors had publicly announced ambitious Manhattan project-style goals to crack the anti-gravity problem during the mid-1950s while the atomic airplane was on the drawing board, but by the end of 1966, no more information was flowing into the newspapers and magazines. According to established secondary sources, the gravity control propulsion projects had received political, defense, financial, and academic support in the absence of any known theoretical breakthroughs, discoveries, and/or inventions. The articles, although from very reputable publishers with nation-wide subscription bases, resembled hype because they did not reveal the breakthroughs that had caused the projects. Cleaver (1957b, p. 85) summarized the reports in the following statement: “Unknown, too - or at least unannounced – is the name of agency or individual who decided to encourage, stimulate, or sponsor this effort, also in just what way it is being done. However, that the effort is in progress there can be little doubt, and, of course, it is entirely to be welcomed.” According to Talbert (1955a, d) the gravity control propulsion projects had stemmed from the exciting prospects presented in Bryce DeWitt’s essay for the Gravity Research Foundation, Pascual Jordan’s book on gravitation, and Burkhard Heim’s theoretical research. None of these represented an invention or a theoretical breakthrough (Cleaver, 1957a; Weyl 1957).
The first step towards applying significant financial, industrial, and academic resources to develop anti-gravity theories and materials commenced during the summer of 1948 with the creation of the Gravity Research Foundation by Bostonian investment tycoon, Roger W. Babson (Science section, 1948; Babson, 1950). The purpose of the Foundation was to nurture gravitation research for the goal of developing gravity shielding technology that could reduce airplane crashes. It held annual gravitation essay competitions that awarded up to $5,000 and sponsored yearly Gravity Day conferences.
Even though some of the physicists who attended the Gravity Day Conferences quietly mocked the anti-gravity mission of the Foundation (Kaiser, 2000), it provided significant contributions to mainstream physics (Witten, 1998). The Gravity Research Foundation essay written by Robert L. Forward (1963) "Guidelines to Antigravity" received a Second Award and was published a year later in the ''American Journal of Physics''. The gravity shielding emphasis of the Foundation was removed after the death of Babson in 1967. In 1968, theoretical physicist Louis Witten became the Vice President and Director of Science Affairs for the Foundation. The ''International Journal of Modern Physics D'' has featured selected papers from the Gravity Research Foundation essay competition. Many have been incorporated with the collections of the Niels Bohr Library (''Center for History of Physics Newsletter'', '34'(2), 10). A few of the Foundation essay contest winners became Nobel laureates (e.g., Ilya Prigogine, Maurice Allais, George F. Smoot).
The gravity control propulsion phase of the anti-gravity effort was announced in the ''New York Herald Tribune'' (Talbert, 1955a, b, c) and ''The Miami Herald'' (Talbert, 1955d, e, f) during the weeks of the 1955 Thanksgiving Holiday. Both series of articles stated Glenn L. Martin Company, Convair, Bell Aircraft Corporation, Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation, Lear, Incorporated, Clarke Electronics, Sperry Gyroscope Division, Sperry-Rand Corporation, and Gluhareff Helicopter and Airplane Corporation, had explicitly acknowledged commitments to conducting gravity control propulsion research.
The intensified effort to increase the understanding of gravitation had the backing of outstanding physicists such as Dr. Edward Teller of the University of California, and Dr. Robert Oppenheimer, Dr. Freeman J. Dyson, and Dr. John A. Wheeler of Princeton University (Talbert, 1955a, d). Conservative endorsements by physicists for the projects' goal to attain gravity control propulsion through the development of the unified field theory were made by Dr. Stanley Deser and Dr. Richard Arnowitt of the Institute for Advanced Study and Dr. Václav Hlavatý of Indiana University (Talbert, 1955a,d). Similar endorsements of the American effort by Lucien A. A. Gerardin (1956) of Compagnie Francaise Thomas-Houston, Le Raincy, France, and M. Gutmann (1956), Göteborg, Sweden, appeared in British publications the following year. The scientific community had publicly welcomed the initiative to learn more about gravitation and its possible manipulation for propulsion.
Early references to the involvement of the aerospace companies committed to conducting the gravity research projects had carried acknowledgements of the support by the Gravity Research Foundation (Talbert, 1955a, d; Anti-gravity studies booming, 1956; Gravity Research Group, 1956; Gravity Rand Ltd, 1956; Gladych, 1957; Stine, 1957). For example, Gravity Research Foundation papers by F. Mozer, J. W. Beams, Stanley Deser, Richard Arnowitt, J. W. Wickenden, and Martin L. Perl complemented the list of areas of anti-gravity research given in the Gravitics Situation technical report (Gravity Rand Ltd, 1956).
The Gravity Research Foundation had nurtured the birth of a major theoretical physics institute. Talbert’s articles announced the proposal to create the Institute of Pure Physics at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Funds for the Institute had been raised by Agnew H. Bahnson, Jr., one of the Gravity Research Foundation trustees. Bryce DeWitt, winner of the 1953 Gravity Research Foundation essay competition, was asked to head the Institute.[8] It was established in 1956 as the Institute of Field Physics under the direction of Bryce and his wife, Cecile DeWitt. Its goal was to increase understanding about gravitation – not the pursuit of anti-gravity.
Another announcement[9][10] was the creation of the Research Institute for Advanced Study (RIAS) by George S. Trimble. He was the vice president for aviation and advance propulsion systems for the Glenn L. Martin Aircraft Company, Baltimore, Maryland. The quest for propulsion through gravity control was vaguely implied in initial RIAS publications[11][12][13]. An interview indicated one of Trimble’s major reasons for creating RIAS was “the control of the force of gravity itself for propulsion.”[14]. Its first recruit was the internationally recognized expert in gravitation, Louis Witten[15].
Trimble’s completion of contractual arrangements between RIAS and Burkhard Heim was the second segment of Talbert’s news about RIAS. Burkhard Heim was the first to claim to have united general relativity with quantum mechanics for interplanetary, force field propulsion. He called his theory the principle of dynamic contrabarie and had presented it to the congressional sessions of the International Astronautical Federation during September, 1952 and 1954 at Stuttgart, Germany, and Innsbruck, Austria, respectively (Weyl, 1957, 1959a,b; Sigma, 1996; Dröscher & Häuser, 2002). The contract had been offered before the completion of his progress report (Heim, 1956) and first publication (Heim, 1959a, b, c, d).
Within a year of Talbert's series of articles, the General Physics Laboratory of the Aeronautical Research Laboratories (ARL) at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio, commenced an intense program to coordinate research into gravitational and unified field theories with the hiring of Joshua N. Goldberg (1992, p. 90). During the following sixteen years, ARL scientists produced 19 technical reports and over seventy peer-reviewed journal articles. The 19 ARL Technical Reports had been written by P. Jordan, W. Kundt, J. Erhlers, P. Bergmann, A. Schild, R. Arnowit, P. Havas, H. Bondi, V. H'lavaty, R. Schiller, E. T. Newman, A. I. Janis, J. N. Goldberg, W. M. Fairbanks, W. O. Hamilton, M. Carmeli, and S. Malin. The papers that had been sponsored by the ARL were published in the ''Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Physical Review, Jounral of Mathematical Physics, Physical Review Letters, Physical Review D, Review of Modern Physics, General Relativity and Gravitation, International Journal of Theoretical Physics,'' and ''Nuovo Cimento B''. Major contributions in talent and research for general relativity physics came from the ARL.
The notable paper on the Roy Kerr metric by Boyer and Lindquist (1967) was an example of one of the many ARL sponsored articles. Roy Kerr, born and raised in New Zealand, had completed his famous paper on spinning black holes during his transition from ARL to the University of Texas, Austin. Some of the ARL papers were written in collaboration with RIAS, the U.S. Army Signal Research and Development Laboratory at Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, and the Office of Naval Research.
Military support for the general relativity projects was terminated by an act of Congress. The Mansfield Amendment of 1973 restricted Department of Defense spending to only the areas of scientific research with explicit military applications.
Cleaver (1957a, p. 385) reported the publicity the gravity control projects had received in the following statement: "In the United States, newspapers and magazines, and nearly all the American aviation periodicals, have printed references to current work. Some of these accounts have been repeated in British and European papers, again more especially in the aeronautical publications, and sometimes with embellishment." For eleven years, one or more gravity control propulsion project articles appeared in ''Aero Digest, Aeronautics, Aeroplane, Aviation Week, Holiday, Interavia, Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Mechanix Illustrated, Missiles and Rockets'', and ''True''. Intel’s May 1956 article started a “flood of letters” that caused another ''Interavia'' electrogravitics article to be prepared for December (Mind of Mr. Reader, 1956). Of those many letters, Kurt Heintzenberg's represented one of the earliest statements in English about Viktor Schauberger's work (Mind of Mr. Reader, 1956).
Most writers praised the effort. Stambler (1957), Cleaver (1957a,b), and Weyl (1957, 1959) were among the few who were very critical of it.
A few papers evinced American efforts to investigate rumors (Mallan, 1959; Beller, 1961; Radzievskiy, 1964) about Soviet Union anti-gravity projects (e.g., Schwartz, 1958). One of the letters to the editor by Schulz Pillgram (Mind of Mr. Reader, 1956) referred to breakthroughs in weightless flight by German engineer Lewetzow that had been successfully exploited by the Soviets since 1945.
The last periodical to publish an explicit article about the gravity control propulsion project (G-project) was the January 1966 issue of ''True, The Man’s Magazine'' (Keyhoe, 1966). It contained longer lists of aerospace firms, research institutes, and academic institutions than had been cited in Talbert's series of articles. A notable feature of the G-project articles was the absence of denials, retractions, and reports of failures. The G-projects were a reality that had emerged from secrecy, doubled its size, and had quietly receded from public view over an eleven-year period.
During the late 1950s the intense interest in anti-gravity had started the resurgence of general relativity as a component of physics department curriculum across the country. “Einstein’s elegant theory of gravitation, completed in 1915-1916, had by the 1940s nearly disappeared from the training of American graduate students in physics” (Kaiser, 1998, p. 321). The projects nurtured by the Gravity Research Foundation and its spin-off, the Institute of Field Physics, contributed to the return of general relativity to physics departments (Kaiser, 1999, 2000a,b). Additional stimuli came from the recruitment activities, conferences, peer review journal papers, and support by RIAS and ARL. "However, it should be recognized that, in the United States, the Department of Defense played an essential role in building a strong scientific community without widespread encroachment on academic values" (Goldberg, 1992, p. 100). Anti-gravity dreams had nurtured the growth and return of general relativity.
During the close of the twentieth century, a smaller American gravity control propulsion project was established for only seven years. NASA had provided funding for the Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program from 1996 through 2002. The magnitude of support it had received from aerospace companies, universities, and national defense agencies was much smaller than the projects that had been publicized during the 1950s and 1960's.
The advent of the Internet brought the development of many web sites dedicated to finding ways to produce anti-gravity. In 1999, '''Project Omicron ''' (Rinaldi, 1999) was created by James Tracy to explore the idea of a Luminiferous aether with no inertia. Other sites explored this notion, dubbed Neo-Aetherics.
According to the aviation trade publication ''Interavia'', research into "electro-gravitic propulsion" was done in 1956. "In this particular line of research, the weights of some materials have already been cut as much as 30 percent by 'energizing' them. Security prevents disclosure of what precisely is meant by 'energizing' or in which country this work is under way," the magazine reported. A localized gravitic field used as a ponderamotive force has been created (Intel, 1956).
British analyses by the Gravity Research Group (1956) and by a technical writer, under the pen name of Intel (1956), had reported an electrogravitic component of the Biefeld-Brown effect as the primary theory tested by the aerospace firms of the American gravity control propulsion project. The Biefeld-Brown effect is known to encompass electrokinetic effects, but is often claimed to have an electrogravitic component as well. The latter was reported by Thomas Townsend Brown (1928, 1929) to generate thrust without the reliance on a surrounding medium (e.g., air) by applying high voltages to materials with high dielectric constants. Correlations between variations in thrust and the position of the Moon lead Brown (1929) to associating the electrostatic phenomenon with gravity. Thomas Townsend Brown's first article and patent emphasized electrogravitics.
In 2001, the Disclosure Project announced that anti-gravity and Zero-point energy were in use by secret government agencies, and had been so for over fifty years. Mark McCandlish, a member of the Disclosure Project, provided a drawing of an alleged product of those secret agencies called the Alien Reproduction Vehicle[1]. It presented a view of large, very high voltage capacitors that functioned like Thomas Townsend Brown's gravitator. That mechanical drawing closely resembled an illustration that had been provided by Milton William Cooper (1991, p. 406) to evince the existence of man-made anti-gravity vehicles. According to its caption, the vehicle had been built by Northrop, McDonnell Douglas, and General Electric. Both drawings featured an apparatus that could be attributed to the electrogravitic portion of the Biefeld-Brown effect.
Recent electrogravitic tests in Canada and Japan have been reportedly positive. Aviation photographer, Doyle R. Buehler, and Takaaki Musha, member of the Advanced Space Propulsion Investigation Committee under the Japan Society for Aeronautical and Space Sciences reported the positive results. Buehler (2004) conducted his experiments at the Southern Alberta Institute of Technology, in Calgary, Canada. Musha (2000) conducted several electrostatic experiments soley at the Ono Sokki's Yokohama technical center from 1992 to 1994. Musha later cooperated with a research group under Okamoto of the Honda Corporation. From the first of February to the first of March of 1996, they replicated Musha's experiments with higher voltage electric fields at the Honda Corporation Research Institute and obtained similar results(Musha, 2004). They also observed larger weight reductions when impressed AC pulses to the capacitor(Musha, 2000,2007). Musha used a weak field approximation of Einstein's General Relativity Theory to generate a formula to explain electrogravitics. Analyses by Noriki Iwanaga (1999) of Musha's theoretical explanations were judged to be flawed from the standpoint of general relativistic side, but he also found that it would be profitable to apply the Brown's propulsion method for small space vehicles if the Musha's theory was physically valid.
Five years later, a firm theoretical foundation for Brown's electrogravitic effect was put forth by Boyko Ivanov (2004) of the Institute for Nuclear Research and Nuclear Energy, Sofia, Bulgaria. He used classical approaches to Einstein's equations known as the Weyl-Majumdar-Papapetrou field solutions, dating back to 1916, to derive what he called root gravity. Ivanov's initial proofs were released through the Los Alamos National Laboratory archives (Ivanov, 2004, 2005a,b). They contained descriptions of eight types of experiments that could be performed in the laboratory to detect root gravity. The first one incorporates parallel plate capacitors carrying several hundred thousand volts. His formula for the electrostatic production of root gravity supports reports by Brown, Buehler, and Musha.
Invanov's and Musha's formulas are equivalent when the dielectric atomic number Z equals unity (Musha, 2007). Both are inverse functions of the dielectric thickness and directly proportional to the voltage. Musha (2004) incorporated modulo Z and international system units (SI) and Ivanov used the CGS (Gauss) system of units. Because both of them are linear approximation for the case of almost flat metric, neither formula accounted for the correlations between the electrogravitic variations of the Biefeld-Brown effect and the positions of the Moon that had been reported by Brown (1929) and Musha (2000). Statistical analyses of the electrokinetic variations of the Biefeld-Brown effect yielded insignificant correlations with lunar positions (Cady, 1952). It was reported by G.V.Stephenson (2005) that measured Biefeld-Brown effect showed a dependence on thunderstorm activity. Thus neither formula is applicable to the electrokinetic aspect of the Biefeld-Brown effect.
In 1989, Ning Li, of the University of Alabama in Huntsville, proposed a method for slightly altering local gravity fields. Torr and Li (1991, 1992a, 1992b, 1993) theoretically demonstrated how a time dependent magnetic field could cause the spins of the lattice ions in a superconductor to generate detectable gravitomagnetic and gravitoelectric fields. In 1999, Li and her team appeared in ''Popular Mechanics'', having constructed a working prototype to generate what she described as "AC Gravity." The device is known as the high temperature superconducting disc. Li acknowledges that to 'release' the device before knowing that it is indeed functional and not an unexplained aberration could cause a situation similar to the cold fusion alleged "discoveries". [2]
.
Gravity control propulsion articles became rare after ''Missile and Rockets'' (LaFond, 1960) had reported a breakthrough by Ryan Aeronautical Company. It indicated their experimental achievements allowed the projection of a beam of either attracting or repelling gravity-like force to cause accelerations up to one hundred times the rate of the Earth’s acceleration (g) due to gravity. Accelerating an object at 100 g’s from a standstill would cause it to attain a speed in excess of 2,181.8 miles per hour within just one second. Similar force field beam projections have been reported by Eugene Podkletnov and Giovanni Modanese (2001).
1. Peskin, M and Schroeder, D. ;''An Introduction to Quantum Field Theory'' (Westview Press, 1995) [ISBN 0-201-50397-2]
2. ''General Relativity'', Wald, Robert M., , , University of Chicago Press, 1984, ISBN 0-226-87033-2
3. Polchinski, Joseph (1998). ''String Theory'', Cambridge University Press. A modern textbook
4. M. Tajmar, F. Plesescu, K. Marhold, C.J. de Matos: Experimental Detection of the Gravitomagnetic London Moment
5. M. Tajmar, F. Plesescu, B. Seifert, K. Marhold: Measurement of Gravitomagnetic and Acceleration Fields Around Rotating Superconductors
6. (Submitted to Physica C)
7. (arXiv:0707.3806v3)
8.
9. Conquest of gravity aim of top scientists in U.S. A. E. Talbert
10. Space-ship marvel seen if gravity is outwitted A. E. Talbert
11. Something about electro-gravitics, , , A. V. Cleaver, The Aeroplane,
12. ‘Electro-gravitics’: What it is – or might be, , , A. V. Cleaver, Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, 1957
13. The Hunt for Zero Point, , , N. Cook, New York: Broadway Books, ,
14. Space satellites (How to book 364), , , L. Mallan date = 1958, Fawcett Publications, Greenwich, CT, ,
15. Some reminiscences of control and system theory in the period 1955-1960: Introduction of Dr Rudolf E. Kalman, , , R. W. Bass, Real Time (University of Alabama Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Huntsville, Alabama),
★ Abel, R. C. (1956, September). Levitation. ''Aeronautics'', '35'(1), 68-72. (British Aviation Publications).
★ "Anti-gravitation." (1957, June 10). ''Time the Weekly Magazine'', '69'(23), 81.
★ "Anti-gravity studies booming." (1956, March). ''Aero Digest'', '72'(3), 6, 8.
★ Babson, R. W. (1950). ''Actions and Reactions'' (2nd Revised Edition). New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers.
★ Bass, R. W. (2002, Spring/Summer). "Some reminiscences of control and system theory in the period 1955-1960: Introduction of Dr. Rudolf E. Kalman." ''Real Time''. Huntsville, Alabama: University of Alabama Electrical and Computer Engineering Department.
★ Beller, W. (1961, September 11). "Soviet efforts are closely watched." ''Missiles and Rockets'', '9'(11), 27.
★ Bondi, H. (1957, July). Negative mass in general relativity. ''Reviews of Modern Physics'', '29'(3), 423-428.
★ Brown, T. T. (1928, November 15). Great Britain Patent No. 300,311.
★ Brown, T. T. (1929, August). "How I control gravitation." ''Science'' ''& Invention'' in the ''Psychic Observer'', '37'(1).
★ Boyer, R. H., & Lindquist, R. W. (1967, February). "Maximal analytic extension of the Kerr metric." ''Journal of Mathematical Physics'', '8'(2), 265-281.
★ Buehler, D. R. (2004, April 4). "Exploratory research on the phenomenon of the movement of high voltage capacitors." ''Journal of Space Mixing'', '2', 1-22.
★ Burridge, G. (1958, June). "Another step toward anti-gravity: Biefeld-Brown effect." ''American Mercury'', '86', 77-82.
★ Cady, W. M. (1952, September 15). "Thomas Townsend Brown: Electro-Gravity Device" (File 24-185). Pasadena, CA: Office of Naval Research. Public access to the report was authorized on October 1, 1952.
★ Childress, D. H. (Ed.)(1990). "Anti-Gravity and the Unified Field", Stelle, Illinois: Adventures Unlimited Press. ISBN 0-932813-10-0. ''(A collection of pseudoscientific essays, including ''The Vortex Arena'' by John Walker, ''How I control gravity'' by T. Townsend Brown and ''Anti-mass generators in UFO propulsion'' by Kenneth W. Behrendt)''
★ Clarke, A. C. (1957, December). "The conquest of gravity," ''Holiday'', '22'(6), 62.
★ Cleaver, A. V. (1947, June). Interplanetary flight: Is the rocket the only answer? ''Journal of the British Interplanetary Society'', '6'(5), 127-148.
★ Cleaver, A. V. (1957a, March 15). Something about elctro-gravitics. ''The Aeroplane'', '92'(2376), 385-387.
★ Cleaver, A. V. (1957b, April-June). 'Electro-gravitics:' What it is - or might be. ''Journal of the British Interplanetary Society'', '16, No. 2'(75), 84-94.
★ Cook, N. (2001a). ''The Hunt for Zero Point'', New York: Broadway Books.
★ Cook, N. (2001b, May). "Star trek science: Is a breakthrough closer than we think?" ''Interavia, Business & Technology'', '56'(653), 44-46.
★ Cooper, M. W. (1991). ''Behold a pale horse''. Flagstaff, Arizona: Light Technology Publishing.
★ Correspondence Section (1958, September-October and November-December). "Electrical theory of gravity" [letters to the editor]. ''Journal of the British Interplanetary Society'', '16'(9, issue 82), 540-542 and '16'(10, issue 83), 586-5587.
★ Cox, D. W., & Stoiko, M. (1958). ''Spacepower: what it means to you '' (p. 118). Philadelphia, PA: The John C. Winston Company.
★ DeWitt, B. S. (1953). "New directions for research in the theory of gravitation." ''Essays on gravity''. New Boston, New Hampshire: Gravity Research Foundation.
★ Dröscher, W., & Häuser, J. (2002, July). "Physical principles of advanced space propulsion based on Heim’s field theory" (AIAA 2002-4094). 38th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference & Exhibit. Indianapolis, Indiana.
★ "Electrogravitics: science or daydream?" (1957, December 30). ''Product Engineering'', '28'(26), 12.
★ Forward, R. L. (1963, March). "Guidelines to antigravity." ''American Journal of Physics'', '31'(3), 166-170.
★ Forward, R. L. (1990, Jan.-Feb.). Negative matter propulsion. ''Journal of Propulsion and Power'', '6'(1), 28-37.
★ Frisch, B. H. (1965, December). "How to fall up." ''Science Digest'', '58'(6), 42-46.
★ Gerardin, L. A. A. (1956, December). "Electro-gravitic propulsion," ''Interavia'', '11'(12), 992.
★ Gladych, M. (1957, July). "Spaceships that conquer gravity." ''Mechanix Illustrated'', '53'(7), 98-100, 174, 181.
★ Goldberg, J. M. (1992). "US air force support of general relativity: 1956-1972." In, J. Eisenstaedt & A. J. Kox (Ed.), ''Studies in the History of General Relativity, Volume 3''. Boston, Massachusetts: Center for Einstein Studies.
★ Gravity Rand Ltd (1956, December). ''The gravitics situation''. In T. Valone (Ed.). (2001, January, 4th ed.) ''Electrogravitics systems: Reports on a new propulsion methodology'' (pp. 42-77). Washington, D.C: Integrity Research Institute.
★ Gravity Research Group (1956, February). ''Electrogravitic systems: An examination of electrostatic motion, dynamic counterbary and barycentric control'' (Report GRG 013/56). London: Special Weapons Study Unit, Aviation Studies (International) Limited. In T. Valone (Ed.). (2001, January, 4th ed.) ''Electrogravitics systems: Reports on a new propulsion methodology'' (pp. 11-41). Washington, D.C: Integrity Research Institute.
★ Greer, S. M. (2001). ''Disclosure: Top-secret military and government witnesses reveal the greatest secrets in modern history'' (pp. 497-510). Cozet, Virginia: Crossing Point, Incorporated.
★ Gutman, M. (1956, May). "Albert Einstein and gravitics research," ''Interavia'','11'(5), 375.
★ Haisch, B., & Rueda, A. (1997, August). The zero-point field and the NASA challenge to create the space drive. Paper presented at the NASA Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Workshop, NASA Lewis Research Center.
★ Hathaway, G. D. (2002). "A brief survey of gravity control experiments." In M. R. Edwards (Ed.), ''Pushing gravity: New perspectives on Le Sage’s theory of gravitation'' (pp. 311-316). Montreal, Quebec, Canada: C. Roy Keys Inc.
★ Heim, B. (1956). "A report on the development of the principle of dynamic contrabarie." New Boston, NH: Gravity Research Foundation (unpublished English translation).
★ Heim, B. (1959a). "Das prinzip der dynamischen kontrabarie." ''Zeitschrift für Flugkörper'', '1'(4), 100-102.
★ Heim, B. (1959b). "Das prinzip der dynamischen kontrabarie (II)," ''Zeitschrift für Flugkörper'', '1'(6), 164-166.
★ Heim, B. (1959c). "Das prinzip der dynamischen kontrabarie (III)," ''Zeitschrift für Flugkörper'', '1'(7), 219-221.
★ Heim, B. (1959d). "Das prinzip der dynamischen kontrabarie (IV)," ''Zeitschrift für Flugkörper'', '1'(8), 244-248.
★ "How to ‘fall’ into space" (1958, February 8). ''Business Week'' (no. 1484), 51-53.
★ Intel (1956, May). "Toward flight without stress or strain...or weight," ''Interavia'','11'(5), 373-374.
★ Ivanov, B. V. (2004, July 13). "Strong gravitational force induced by static electromagnetic fields." Preprint arXiv: gr-qc/04070748.
★ Ivanov, B. V. (2005a, February 10). "On the gravitational field induced by static electromagnetic sources." Preprint arXiv: gr-qc/0502047.
★ Ivanov, B. V. (2005b, July 19). "Weyl electrovacuum solutions and gauge invariance." Preprint arXiv: gr-qc/0507082.
★ Iwanaga, N. (1999, January 22). "Reviews of field propulsion methods from the general relativistic standpoint." ''AIP Conference Proceedings'', '458'(1), 1051-1059.
★ Kaiser, D. (1998). "A ψ is just a ψ? Pedagogy, practice, and the reconstitution of general relativity, 1942-1975." ''Studies in History, Philosophy, and Modern Physics'', '29'(3), 321-338.
★ Kaiser, D. (1999, July 9). “Roger Babson and the rediscovery of general relativity,” ''Fifth International Conference on the History and Foundations of General Relativity'', University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana.
★ Kaiser, D. (2000). "Chapter 10 – Roger Babson and the rediscovery of general relativity." ''In Making theory: Producing physics and physicists in postwar America'' (Ph.D. dissertation). Harvard University.
★ Kaiser, D. (2000, November 5). "On a wing and a prayer: Roger Babson and the rediscovery of general relativity." History of Science Society 2000 Annual Meeting and Philosophy of Science Association 2000 Biannual Meeting. Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
★ Kerr, R. P. (1963). "Gravitational field of a spinning mass as an example of algebraically special metrics." ''Physical Review Letters'', '11'(5), 237-238.
★ Keyhoe, D. (1966, January). "I know the secret of the flying saucers." ''True, The Man’s Magazine'', '47'(344), 340.
★ Keyhoe, D. (1973). ''The real story of unidentified flying objects'' (pp. 39-40, 45). New York: Signet Book, The New American Library, Inc.
★ LaFond, C. D. (Ed.) (1960, July 11). "Force field research by Ryan shows promise." ''Missiles and Rockets'', '7'(2), 27.
★ Li, N., & Torr, D. (1991). ''Physical Review'', '43D', 457.
★ Li, N., & Torr, D. (1992a). ''Physical Review'', '46B', 5489.
★ Li, N., & Torr, D. (1992b). ''Bulletin of the American Physical Society'', '37', 441.
★ v. Ludwiger, I. (2001, January 28). "Zum tode des physikers Burkhard Heim." Retrieved September 10, 2004 from the Zum Tode des Physikers Burkhard Heim web site.
★ Maccabee, B. S. (1997). "Acceleration." Retrieved August 22, 2006 from the National Institute for Discovery Science at http:www.nidsci.org/articles/maccabee.php.
★ Mallan, L. (1958). ''Space satellites'' (How to book 364). Greenwich, CT: Fawcett Publications, pp. 9-10, 137, 139.
★ Mallan, L. (1959). ''Russia and the big red lie'' (Fawcett Book 417). Greenwich, CT: Fawcett Publications, pp. 138-139.
★ Mallan, L. (1961). ''Space science'' (Fawcett Book 479). Greenwich, CT: Fawcett Publications, p. 94.
★ Mind of Mr. Reader, The (1956, September to 1957, June). ''Interavia'', '11'(9), 727; '11'(11), 908; '11'(12), 994; and '12'(6), 532.
★ Musha, T. (2000). "Theoretical explanation of the Biefeld-Brown effect." ''Electric Spacecraft Journal'', '31', 29.
★ Musha, T. (2004, January/February). "The possibility of strong coupling between electricity and gravitation." ''Infinite Energy'', '9'(53), 61-64.
★ Musha,T.(2007, July2-4). "Explanation of dynamical Biefeld-Brown effect from the standpoint of ZPF field", ''Proceedings of the Fifth IAA Symposium'', International Academy of Astronautics, Aosta,Italy: 31-36.
★ Podkletnov, E., & Modanese, G. (2001, August 30). "Impulse gravity generator based on charged YBa2Cu3O{7-y} superconductor with composite crystal structure." Preprint arXiv: physics/0108005.
★ Radzievskiy, V. V. & Kagal’Nikova, I. I. (1964, May 8). "The nature of gravitation." Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH: Foreign Technology Division. (NTIS No. AD601762)
★ "Research group investigates gravity" (1957, March 18). ''Aviation Week'', '66'(11), 121, 123.
★ Rinaldi, R. (1999, October 14). "15 Minutes," ''Sacramento News and Review'', '87'.
★ Schwartz, H. (1958, March 2). "Russian reports a gravity theory." ''The New York Times''. P. L-17.
★ Sarfatti, J. (2005). "Super Cosmos" Authorhouse
★ Science section (August 23, 1948). “Sir Isaac Babson,” ''Newsweek'', '32'(8), 47.
★ Sigma, R. (1996, March). ''Ether technology: A rationale approach to gravity control''. Kempton, Illinois: Adventures Unlimited Press. First edition was published 1977.
★ Stambler, E. (1957, May). "Anti-gravity – fact or fancy?" ''Aviation Age'', '27'(5), 26-31.
★ Stine, G. H. (1957, June). "Conquest of space: anti-gravity: power of the future." ''Mechanix Illustrated'', '53'(6), 22-23.
★ Stephenson, G. V. (2005,March 31). "The Biefeld Brown Effect and the Global Electric Circuit." ''Space Technology and Applications International Forum-Staif 2005'', 1249-1255.
★ Talbert, A. E. (1955a, November 20). "Conquest of gravity aim of top scientists in U.S.," ''New York Herald-Tribune'': Sunday, pp. 1 and 36.
★ Talbert, A. E. (1955b, November 21). "Space-ship marvel seen if gravity is outwitted," ''New York Herald-Tribune'': Monday, pp. 1 and 6.
★ Talbert, A. E. (1955c, November 22). "New air dream-planes flying outside gravity," ''New York Herald-Tribune'': Tuesday, pp. 6 and 10.
★ Talbert, A. E. (1955d, November 30). "Scientists taking first steps in assault on gravity barrier," ''The Miami Herald'': Wednesday, pp. 1, 2-A.
★ Talbert, A. E. (1955e, December 1). "Future planes may defy gravity and air lift in space travel," ''The Miami Herald'': Thursday, p. 2-B.
★ Talbert, A. E. (1955f, December 2). "Engineers aiming to flout gravity," ''The Miami Herald'': Friday.
★ Torr, D., & Li, N. (1993). Gravitoelectric-electric coupling via superconductivity. ''Foundations of Physics Letters'', '6'(4), 371-383.
★ "Trouble with gravity, The." (1950, January 2). ''Time the Weekly Magazine'', 55, 54.
★ Watson, J. T. (1961, February). ''Gravitational control research'' (Master’s thesis). (DTIC No. AD-0253588)
★ Weyl, A. R. (1957, October). ‘Anti-gravity’. ''Aeronautics'', '37'(2), 80-86. (British Aviation Publications).
★ Weyl, A. R. (1959a, January). "Knowledge and possibilities of gravity research" (DTIC No. AD-0830247). W. R. Eichler (Trans.) ''Weltraumfahrt; Zeitschrift für Rakententechnik'', '9', 100-106 (original work published December 1958).
★ Weyl, A. R. (1959b, February). "Gravity and the prospects for astronautics." ''Aeronautics'', '59'(6), 16-22. (British Aviation Publications).
★ Witten, L. (1998). “Introductory remarks on the Gravity Research Foundation on its fiftieth anniversary,” presented at the 15th International Conference on General Relativity and Gravitation; edited by Naresh Dadhich and Jayant Narlikar in proceedings of ''Gravitation and Relativity: at the turn of the Millennium'', Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Pune, India (ISBN 81-900378-3-8) p. 375.
★ Gravitational interaction of antimatter
★ Artificial gravity
★ Burkhard Heim
★
★ Take a leap into hyperspace, ''New Scientist'', 2006-01-05
★
★ Testing Heim's theories, ''New Scientist'', 2006-02-18
★ Exotic matter
★ Heim Theory
★ Hutchison effect
★ Dean drive
★ The spindizzy drive in the science fiction novels of James Blish
★ Electrostatic levitation
★ Magnetic levitation
★ Gyroscopic Antigravity on NASA's "Common Errors in propulsion" page
★ Gyroscopic Superconducting Antigravity news item on tentative result of European Space Agency (esa) research on a possible gravitomagnetic force
★ History of Antigravity and many significant contributors, scientists, and resources.
★ Official website for the Feature Film ANTIGRAVITY
★ Official website for UFO/Antigravity expert and Author Bruce L. Cathie
'Anti-gravity' is the hypothetical idea, often considered pseudoscientific, of creating a place or object that is free from the force of gravity. It does not refer to countering the gravitational force by an opposing force of a different nature, as a helicopter or helium balloon does; instead, anti-gravity requires that the fundamental causes of the force be made either not present or not applicable to the place or object through some kind of technological intervention.
It is a recurring theme in science fiction, particularly in the context of spacecraft propulsion. Often a special "gravity shield" or "anti-gravity force field" is employed, allowing a spacecraft to maneuver in a gravitational field free from the effects of its force.
The term "anti-gravity" is sometimes used to refer to hypothetical reactionless propulsion drives based on certain solutions to general relativity, although these do not oppose gravity as such. It is also used in reference to the accelerating expansion of the universe.
According to the current widely accepted physical theories, verified in experiments, and according to the major directions of physical research, it is considered highly unlikely that anti-gravity is possible [1][2][3].
Gravity shields
Some science fiction stories postulate the existence of a substance partially or completely opaque to gravity. Placing this substance underneath an object reduces or eliminates its weight, allowing it to float away from the Earth's surface with a relatively small expenditure of energy.
There are strong reasons to believe that no such substance can exist. Placing such a substance underneath one half of an alternator mounted on a horizontal axis would induce a constant torque on the rotor from the weight differential, producing a limitless supply of energy in violation of the first law of thermodynamics. Additionally, ordinary opaque substances block electromagnetic waves, not static electromagnetic fields. It follows from Gauss's law that static fields (such as Earth's gravitational field) cannot be blocked.
Negative mass?
Static electromagnetic fields cannot be blocked, but they can be canceled by an opposing field associated with an opposite electric charge. The gravitational charge is mass, and its opposite would be negative mass. Both general relativity and Newtonian gravity appear to predict that negative mass would produce a repulsive gravitational field. In particular, Sir Hermann Bondi (1957) proposed a form of negative gravitational mass that could comply with the strong equivalence principle of general relativity theory and the Newtonian laws of conservation of linear momentum and energy. Bondi’s proof yielded singularity free solutions for the relativity equations. In July 1988, Robert L. Forward (1990) presented a paper at the AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE 24TH Joint Propulsion Conference that proposed a Bondi negative gravitational mass propulsion system. That concept was investigated by the NASA Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program under the name of the Diametric drive.
Zero point field theory (Haisch & Rueda, 1997) and the Standard Model of particle physics, which describes all presently known forms of matter, does not permit negative mass as well. Cosmological dark matter (and possibly dark energy) may consist of particles outside the Standard Model whose nature is unknown; but their mass is known — since they were discovered by their gravitational effects — and is positive.
Accelerating cosmological expansion
According to the standard cosmological model there is a positive cosmological constant, driving an accelerating expansion of the universe. Since this opposes the attractive effect of ordinary matter, it is sometimes called anti-gravity. This effect is noticeable only on very large scales, much larger than even the local supercluster of galaxies.
The cosmological constant, sometimes called dark energy, is usually attributed to the vacuum energy (rather than to particles), possibly due to Casimir effect. Despite the name, it is in fact a positive vacuum energy.
General-relativistic "warp drives"
There are solutions of the field equations of general relativity which describe "warp drives" (such as the famous Alcubierre metric) and stable, traversable wormholes. This by itself is not significant, since ''any'' spacetime geometry is a solution of the field equations for some configuration of the stress-energy tensor field (see exact solutions in general relativity). General relativity does not constrain the geometry of spacetime unless outside constraints are placed on the stress-energy tensor. Warp-drive and traversable-wormhole geometries are well-behaved in most areas, but require regions of exotic matter; thus they are excluded as solutions if the stress-energy tensor is limited to known forms of matter (including dark matter and dark energy).
Empirical claims of anti-gravity
There have been a few claims in the literature of experimental discovery of anti-gravity effects. As of 2007 none of them are widely accepted by the physics community.
Tajmar et al (2006 & 2007)
A paper by Tajmar et al in 2006 describes the experimental detection of an anti-gravity field above a rotating superconductor, proportional to the angular acceleration of the superconductor.[4] A subsequent paper claims to explain the phenomenon in terms of the nonzero cosmological constant.[5] Neither the experimental results nor the theoretical explanation are widely accepted.
In July 2007, R.D. Graham and other researchers of the Canterbury Ring Laser Group, New Zealand, reported results from an attempt to test the same effect with a larger rotating superconductor, shaped as a disk rather than as a ring. They report no indication of any effect within the measurement accuracy of the experiment. Given the conditions of the experiment, the Canterbury group conclude that if any such 'Tajmar' effect exists, it is at least 21 times smaller than predicted according to the theory proposed by Tajmar in 2006.[6]
Tajmar and his colleagues have acknowledged that the effect reported by Graham and his colleagues is significantly smaller than theirs, and also acknowledge that the theoretical model they proposed in 2006 is now falsified. They still claim there is a signal that can be detected in new experiment, above experimental noise, for which some non-classical explanation is required. It is of the opposite sign to their own measurements, so they speculate that there may be an association with location on the Earth, since the New Zealand group is in the Southern hemisphere.[7]
Conventional effects that mimic anti-gravity effects
★ Magnetic levitation suspends an object against gravity by use of electromagnetic forces. While visually impressive, gravitation itself functions normally in such devices. Critics of various alleged anti-gravity devices often suggest that unusual effects observed around them are due to electromagnetism.
★ A tidal force causes objects to move along diverging paths near a massive body (such as a planet or star), producing effects that seem like repulsion or disruptive forces when observed locally. This is not anti-gravity. In Newtonian mechanics, the tidal force is the effect of the larger object's gravitational force being different at the differing locations of the diverging bodies. In Einsteinian gravity, the tidal force is the effect of the diverging bodies following different paths in the negatively curved spacetime around the larger body.
★ Large amounts of normal matter can be used to produce a gravitational field that compensates for the effects of another gravitational field, though the entire assembly will still be attracted to the source of the larger field. Physicist Robert L. Forward proposed using lumps of degenerate matter to locally compensate for the tidal forces near a neutron star.
Nation-wide anti-gravity initiatives
The United States government and aerospace contractors had publicly announced ambitious Manhattan project-style goals to crack the anti-gravity problem during the mid-1950s while the atomic airplane was on the drawing board, but by the end of 1966, no more information was flowing into the newspapers and magazines. According to established secondary sources, the gravity control propulsion projects had received political, defense, financial, and academic support in the absence of any known theoretical breakthroughs, discoveries, and/or inventions. The articles, although from very reputable publishers with nation-wide subscription bases, resembled hype because they did not reveal the breakthroughs that had caused the projects. Cleaver (1957b, p. 85) summarized the reports in the following statement: “Unknown, too - or at least unannounced – is the name of agency or individual who decided to encourage, stimulate, or sponsor this effort, also in just what way it is being done. However, that the effort is in progress there can be little doubt, and, of course, it is entirely to be welcomed.” According to Talbert (1955a, d) the gravity control propulsion projects had stemmed from the exciting prospects presented in Bryce DeWitt’s essay for the Gravity Research Foundation, Pascual Jordan’s book on gravitation, and Burkhard Heim’s theoretical research. None of these represented an invention or a theoretical breakthrough (Cleaver, 1957a; Weyl 1957).
Gravity shielding initiative
The first step towards applying significant financial, industrial, and academic resources to develop anti-gravity theories and materials commenced during the summer of 1948 with the creation of the Gravity Research Foundation by Bostonian investment tycoon, Roger W. Babson (Science section, 1948; Babson, 1950). The purpose of the Foundation was to nurture gravitation research for the goal of developing gravity shielding technology that could reduce airplane crashes. It held annual gravitation essay competitions that awarded up to $5,000 and sponsored yearly Gravity Day conferences.
Even though some of the physicists who attended the Gravity Day Conferences quietly mocked the anti-gravity mission of the Foundation (Kaiser, 2000), it provided significant contributions to mainstream physics (Witten, 1998). The Gravity Research Foundation essay written by Robert L. Forward (1963) "Guidelines to Antigravity" received a Second Award and was published a year later in the ''American Journal of Physics''. The gravity shielding emphasis of the Foundation was removed after the death of Babson in 1967. In 1968, theoretical physicist Louis Witten became the Vice President and Director of Science Affairs for the Foundation. The ''International Journal of Modern Physics D'' has featured selected papers from the Gravity Research Foundation essay competition. Many have been incorporated with the collections of the Niels Bohr Library (''Center for History of Physics Newsletter'', '34'(2), 10). A few of the Foundation essay contest winners became Nobel laureates (e.g., Ilya Prigogine, Maurice Allais, George F. Smoot).
Gravity control propulsion initiative
The gravity control propulsion phase of the anti-gravity effort was announced in the ''New York Herald Tribune'' (Talbert, 1955a, b, c) and ''The Miami Herald'' (Talbert, 1955d, e, f) during the weeks of the 1955 Thanksgiving Holiday. Both series of articles stated Glenn L. Martin Company, Convair, Bell Aircraft Corporation, Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation, Lear, Incorporated, Clarke Electronics, Sperry Gyroscope Division, Sperry-Rand Corporation, and Gluhareff Helicopter and Airplane Corporation, had explicitly acknowledged commitments to conducting gravity control propulsion research.
The intensified effort to increase the understanding of gravitation had the backing of outstanding physicists such as Dr. Edward Teller of the University of California, and Dr. Robert Oppenheimer, Dr. Freeman J. Dyson, and Dr. John A. Wheeler of Princeton University (Talbert, 1955a, d). Conservative endorsements by physicists for the projects' goal to attain gravity control propulsion through the development of the unified field theory were made by Dr. Stanley Deser and Dr. Richard Arnowitt of the Institute for Advanced Study and Dr. Václav Hlavatý of Indiana University (Talbert, 1955a,d). Similar endorsements of the American effort by Lucien A. A. Gerardin (1956) of Compagnie Francaise Thomas-Houston, Le Raincy, France, and M. Gutmann (1956), Göteborg, Sweden, appeared in British publications the following year. The scientific community had publicly welcomed the initiative to learn more about gravitation and its possible manipulation for propulsion.
Early references to the involvement of the aerospace companies committed to conducting the gravity research projects had carried acknowledgements of the support by the Gravity Research Foundation (Talbert, 1955a, d; Anti-gravity studies booming, 1956; Gravity Research Group, 1956; Gravity Rand Ltd, 1956; Gladych, 1957; Stine, 1957). For example, Gravity Research Foundation papers by F. Mozer, J. W. Beams, Stanley Deser, Richard Arnowitt, J. W. Wickenden, and Martin L. Perl complemented the list of areas of anti-gravity research given in the Gravitics Situation technical report (Gravity Rand Ltd, 1956).
The Gravity Research Foundation had nurtured the birth of a major theoretical physics institute. Talbert’s articles announced the proposal to create the Institute of Pure Physics at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Funds for the Institute had been raised by Agnew H. Bahnson, Jr., one of the Gravity Research Foundation trustees. Bryce DeWitt, winner of the 1953 Gravity Research Foundation essay competition, was asked to head the Institute.[8] It was established in 1956 as the Institute of Field Physics under the direction of Bryce and his wife, Cecile DeWitt. Its goal was to increase understanding about gravitation – not the pursuit of anti-gravity.
Another announcement[9][10] was the creation of the Research Institute for Advanced Study (RIAS) by George S. Trimble. He was the vice president for aviation and advance propulsion systems for the Glenn L. Martin Aircraft Company, Baltimore, Maryland. The quest for propulsion through gravity control was vaguely implied in initial RIAS publications[11][12][13]. An interview indicated one of Trimble’s major reasons for creating RIAS was “the control of the force of gravity itself for propulsion.”[14]. Its first recruit was the internationally recognized expert in gravitation, Louis Witten[15].
Trimble’s completion of contractual arrangements between RIAS and Burkhard Heim was the second segment of Talbert’s news about RIAS. Burkhard Heim was the first to claim to have united general relativity with quantum mechanics for interplanetary, force field propulsion. He called his theory the principle of dynamic contrabarie and had presented it to the congressional sessions of the International Astronautical Federation during September, 1952 and 1954 at Stuttgart, Germany, and Innsbruck, Austria, respectively (Weyl, 1957, 1959a,b; Sigma, 1996; Dröscher & Häuser, 2002). The contract had been offered before the completion of his progress report (Heim, 1956) and first publication (Heim, 1959a, b, c, d).
Within a year of Talbert's series of articles, the General Physics Laboratory of the Aeronautical Research Laboratories (ARL) at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio, commenced an intense program to coordinate research into gravitational and unified field theories with the hiring of Joshua N. Goldberg (1992, p. 90). During the following sixteen years, ARL scientists produced 19 technical reports and over seventy peer-reviewed journal articles. The 19 ARL Technical Reports had been written by P. Jordan, W. Kundt, J. Erhlers, P. Bergmann, A. Schild, R. Arnowit, P. Havas, H. Bondi, V. H'lavaty, R. Schiller, E. T. Newman, A. I. Janis, J. N. Goldberg, W. M. Fairbanks, W. O. Hamilton, M. Carmeli, and S. Malin. The papers that had been sponsored by the ARL were published in the ''Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Physical Review, Jounral of Mathematical Physics, Physical Review Letters, Physical Review D, Review of Modern Physics, General Relativity and Gravitation, International Journal of Theoretical Physics,'' and ''Nuovo Cimento B''. Major contributions in talent and research for general relativity physics came from the ARL.
The notable paper on the Roy Kerr metric by Boyer and Lindquist (1967) was an example of one of the many ARL sponsored articles. Roy Kerr, born and raised in New Zealand, had completed his famous paper on spinning black holes during his transition from ARL to the University of Texas, Austin. Some of the ARL papers were written in collaboration with RIAS, the U.S. Army Signal Research and Development Laboratory at Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, and the Office of Naval Research.
Military support for the general relativity projects was terminated by an act of Congress. The Mansfield Amendment of 1973 restricted Department of Defense spending to only the areas of scientific research with explicit military applications.
Cleaver (1957a, p. 385) reported the publicity the gravity control projects had received in the following statement: "In the United States, newspapers and magazines, and nearly all the American aviation periodicals, have printed references to current work. Some of these accounts have been repeated in British and European papers, again more especially in the aeronautical publications, and sometimes with embellishment." For eleven years, one or more gravity control propulsion project articles appeared in ''Aero Digest, Aeronautics, Aeroplane, Aviation Week, Holiday, Interavia, Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Mechanix Illustrated, Missiles and Rockets'', and ''True''. Intel’s May 1956 article started a “flood of letters” that caused another ''Interavia'' electrogravitics article to be prepared for December (Mind of Mr. Reader, 1956). Of those many letters, Kurt Heintzenberg's represented one of the earliest statements in English about Viktor Schauberger's work (Mind of Mr. Reader, 1956).
Most writers praised the effort. Stambler (1957), Cleaver (1957a,b), and Weyl (1957, 1959) were among the few who were very critical of it.
Monitoring Soviet anti-gravity projects
A few papers evinced American efforts to investigate rumors (Mallan, 1959; Beller, 1961; Radzievskiy, 1964) about Soviet Union anti-gravity projects (e.g., Schwartz, 1958). One of the letters to the editor by Schulz Pillgram (Mind of Mr. Reader, 1956) referred to breakthroughs in weightless flight by German engineer Lewetzow that had been successfully exploited by the Soviets since 1945.
Growth of the nation-wide initiative
The last periodical to publish an explicit article about the gravity control propulsion project (G-project) was the January 1966 issue of ''True, The Man’s Magazine'' (Keyhoe, 1966). It contained longer lists of aerospace firms, research institutes, and academic institutions than had been cited in Talbert's series of articles. A notable feature of the G-project articles was the absence of denials, retractions, and reports of failures. The G-projects were a reality that had emerged from secrecy, doubled its size, and had quietly receded from public view over an eleven-year period.
Resurgence of general relativity
During the late 1950s the intense interest in anti-gravity had started the resurgence of general relativity as a component of physics department curriculum across the country. “Einstein’s elegant theory of gravitation, completed in 1915-1916, had by the 1940s nearly disappeared from the training of American graduate students in physics” (Kaiser, 1998, p. 321). The projects nurtured by the Gravity Research Foundation and its spin-off, the Institute of Field Physics, contributed to the return of general relativity to physics departments (Kaiser, 1999, 2000a,b). Additional stimuli came from the recruitment activities, conferences, peer review journal papers, and support by RIAS and ARL. "However, it should be recognized that, in the United States, the Department of Defense played an essential role in building a strong scientific community without widespread encroachment on academic values" (Goldberg, 1992, p. 100). Anti-gravity dreams had nurtured the growth and return of general relativity.
Recent gravity control propulsion initiatives
During the close of the twentieth century, a smaller American gravity control propulsion project was established for only seven years. NASA had provided funding for the Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program from 1996 through 2002. The magnitude of support it had received from aerospace companies, universities, and national defense agencies was much smaller than the projects that had been publicized during the 1950s and 1960's.
The advent of the Internet brought the development of many web sites dedicated to finding ways to produce anti-gravity. In 1999, '''Project Omicron ''' (Rinaldi, 1999) was created by James Tracy to explore the idea of a Luminiferous aether with no inertia. Other sites explored this notion, dubbed Neo-Aetherics.
Reported experiments
Thomas Townsend Brown's gravitator
According to the aviation trade publication ''Interavia'', research into "electro-gravitic propulsion" was done in 1956. "In this particular line of research, the weights of some materials have already been cut as much as 30 percent by 'energizing' them. Security prevents disclosure of what precisely is meant by 'energizing' or in which country this work is under way," the magazine reported. A localized gravitic field used as a ponderamotive force has been created (Intel, 1956).
British analyses by the Gravity Research Group (1956) and by a technical writer, under the pen name of Intel (1956), had reported an electrogravitic component of the Biefeld-Brown effect as the primary theory tested by the aerospace firms of the American gravity control propulsion project. The Biefeld-Brown effect is known to encompass electrokinetic effects, but is often claimed to have an electrogravitic component as well. The latter was reported by Thomas Townsend Brown (1928, 1929) to generate thrust without the reliance on a surrounding medium (e.g., air) by applying high voltages to materials with high dielectric constants. Correlations between variations in thrust and the position of the Moon lead Brown (1929) to associating the electrostatic phenomenon with gravity. Thomas Townsend Brown's first article and patent emphasized electrogravitics.
In 2001, the Disclosure Project announced that anti-gravity and Zero-point energy were in use by secret government agencies, and had been so for over fifty years. Mark McCandlish, a member of the Disclosure Project, provided a drawing of an alleged product of those secret agencies called the Alien Reproduction Vehicle[1]. It presented a view of large, very high voltage capacitors that functioned like Thomas Townsend Brown's gravitator. That mechanical drawing closely resembled an illustration that had been provided by Milton William Cooper (1991, p. 406) to evince the existence of man-made anti-gravity vehicles. According to its caption, the vehicle had been built by Northrop, McDonnell Douglas, and General Electric. Both drawings featured an apparatus that could be attributed to the electrogravitic portion of the Biefeld-Brown effect.
Recent electrogravitic tests in Canada and Japan have been reportedly positive. Aviation photographer, Doyle R. Buehler, and Takaaki Musha, member of the Advanced Space Propulsion Investigation Committee under the Japan Society for Aeronautical and Space Sciences reported the positive results. Buehler (2004) conducted his experiments at the Southern Alberta Institute of Technology, in Calgary, Canada. Musha (2000) conducted several electrostatic experiments soley at the Ono Sokki's Yokohama technical center from 1992 to 1994. Musha later cooperated with a research group under Okamoto of the Honda Corporation. From the first of February to the first of March of 1996, they replicated Musha's experiments with higher voltage electric fields at the Honda Corporation Research Institute and obtained similar results(Musha, 2004). They also observed larger weight reductions when impressed AC pulses to the capacitor(Musha, 2000,2007). Musha used a weak field approximation of Einstein's General Relativity Theory to generate a formula to explain electrogravitics. Analyses by Noriki Iwanaga (1999) of Musha's theoretical explanations were judged to be flawed from the standpoint of general relativistic side, but he also found that it would be profitable to apply the Brown's propulsion method for small space vehicles if the Musha's theory was physically valid.
Five years later, a firm theoretical foundation for Brown's electrogravitic effect was put forth by Boyko Ivanov (2004) of the Institute for Nuclear Research and Nuclear Energy, Sofia, Bulgaria. He used classical approaches to Einstein's equations known as the Weyl-Majumdar-Papapetrou field solutions, dating back to 1916, to derive what he called root gravity. Ivanov's initial proofs were released through the Los Alamos National Laboratory archives (Ivanov, 2004, 2005a,b). They contained descriptions of eight types of experiments that could be performed in the laboratory to detect root gravity. The first one incorporates parallel plate capacitors carrying several hundred thousand volts. His formula for the electrostatic production of root gravity supports reports by Brown, Buehler, and Musha.
Invanov's and Musha's formulas are equivalent when the dielectric atomic number Z equals unity (Musha, 2007). Both are inverse functions of the dielectric thickness and directly proportional to the voltage. Musha (2004) incorporated modulo Z and international system units (SI) and Ivanov used the CGS (Gauss) system of units. Because both of them are linear approximation for the case of almost flat metric, neither formula accounted for the correlations between the electrogravitic variations of the Biefeld-Brown effect and the positions of the Moon that had been reported by Brown (1929) and Musha (2000). Statistical analyses of the electrokinetic variations of the Biefeld-Brown effect yielded insignificant correlations with lunar positions (Cady, 1952). It was reported by G.V.Stephenson (2005) that measured Biefeld-Brown effect showed a dependence on thunderstorm activity. Thus neither formula is applicable to the electrokinetic aspect of the Biefeld-Brown effect.
Gravitoelectric coupling
In 1989, Ning Li, of the University of Alabama in Huntsville, proposed a method for slightly altering local gravity fields. Torr and Li (1991, 1992a, 1992b, 1993) theoretically demonstrated how a time dependent magnetic field could cause the spins of the lattice ions in a superconductor to generate detectable gravitomagnetic and gravitoelectric fields. In 1999, Li and her team appeared in ''Popular Mechanics'', having constructed a working prototype to generate what she described as "AC Gravity." The device is known as the high temperature superconducting disc. Li acknowledges that to 'release' the device before knowing that it is indeed functional and not an unexplained aberration could cause a situation similar to the cold fusion alleged "discoveries". [2]
A "kinemassic field" generator from : Method and apparatus for generating a secondary gravitational force field
Gravity impulse generator
Gravity control propulsion articles became rare after ''Missile and Rockets'' (LaFond, 1960) had reported a breakthrough by Ryan Aeronautical Company. It indicated their experimental achievements allowed the projection of a beam of either attracting or repelling gravity-like force to cause accelerations up to one hundred times the rate of the Earth’s acceleration (g) due to gravity. Accelerating an object at 100 g’s from a standstill would cause it to attain a speed in excess of 2,181.8 miles per hour within just one second. Similar force field beam projections have been reported by Eugene Podkletnov and Giovanni Modanese (2001).
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See also
★ Gravitational interaction of antimatter
★ Artificial gravity
★ Burkhard Heim
★
★ Take a leap into hyperspace, ''New Scientist'', 2006-01-05
★
★ Testing Heim's theories, ''New Scientist'', 2006-02-18
★ Exotic matter
★ Heim Theory
★ Hutchison effect
★ Dean drive
★ The spindizzy drive in the science fiction novels of James Blish
★ Electrostatic levitation
★ Magnetic levitation
External links
Mainstream links on gravity-related research
★ Gyroscopic Antigravity on NASA's "Common Errors in propulsion" page
★ Gyroscopic Superconducting Antigravity news item on tentative result of European Space Agency (esa) research on a possible gravitomagnetic force
★ History of Antigravity and many significant contributors, scientists, and resources.
Other
★ Official website for the Feature Film ANTIGRAVITY
★ Official website for UFO/Antigravity expert and Author Bruce L. Cathie
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