ANTON CHEKHOV

'Anton Pavlovich Chekhov' (, ) was a Russian short story writer and playwright. He was born in Taganrog, southern Russia, on , and died of tuberculosis at the health spa of Badenweiler, Germany, on . His brief playwriting career produced four classics, while his best short stories are held in high esteem by writers and critics.^[1]"Stories… which are among the supreme achievements in prose narrative." Vodka miniatures, belching and angry cats, George Steiner's review of ''The Undiscovered Chekhov'', in ''The Observer'', 13 May 2001. Retrieved 16 February 2007. Chekhov practiced as a doctor throughout most of his literary career: "Medicine is my lawful wife," he once said, "and literature is my mistress".^[2]
Chekhov renounced the theatre after the disastrous reception of ''The Seagull'' in 1896; but the play was revived to acclaim by Konstantin Stanislavsky's Moscow Art Theatre, which subsequently also produced ''Uncle Vanya'' and premiered Chekhov’s last two plays, ''Three Sisters'' and ''The Cherry Orchard''. These four works present a special challenge to the acting ensemble^[3] as well as to audiences, because in place of conventional action Chekhov offers a "theatre of mood" and a "submerged life in the text".^[4] Not everyone appreciated that challenge: Leo Tolstoy reportedly told Chekhov, "You know, I cannot abide Shakespeare, but your plays are even worse".^[5]Simmons, 495.
Tolstoy did, however, admire Chekhov's short stories.^[6] Chekhov had at first written stories only for the money, but as his artistic ambition grew, he made formal innovations which have influenced the evolution of the modern short story.^[7]"He brought something new into literature." James Joyce, in Arthur Power, ''Conversations with James Joyce'', Usborne Publishing Ltd, 1974, ISBN 978-0-86000-006-8, 57."Tchehov's breach with the classical tradition is the most significant event in modern literature", John Middleton Murry, in ''Athenaeum'', 8 April 1922, cited in Bartlett's introduction to ''About Love'', XX. His originality consists in an early use of the stream-of-consciousness technique, later exploited by Virginia Woolf and other modernists, combined with a disavowal of the moral finality of traditional story structure.^[8]"The artist must not be the judge of his characters and of their conversations, but merely an impartial witness." Letter to Suvorin, 30 May 1888; in reply to an objection that he wrote about horse-thieves (''The Horse-Stealers'', retrieved 16 February 2007) without condemning them, Chekhov said readers should add for themselves the subjective elements lacking in the story. Letter to Suvorin, 1 April 1890. ''Letters of Anton Chekhov''. He made no apologies for the difficulties this posed to readers, insisting that the role of an artist was to ask questions, not to answer them.^[9]

Contents

Biography

Early life

Early writings

Turning points

Sakhalin

Melikhovo

Yalta

Death

Legacy

See also

Notes

References

External links

Biography

Early life

Anton Chekhov was born on 29 January 1860, the third of six surviving children, in Taganrog, Russia, a port on the Sea of Azov in southern Russia where his father, Pavel Yegorovich Chekhov, the son of a former serf, ran a grocery store. A choirmaster, religious fanatic, and keen flogger of his children, Pavel Chekhov has been seen as the model for his son's many portraits of hypocrites.Wood, 78. Chekhov's mother, Yevgeniya, was an excellent storyteller who entertained the children with tales of her travels with her cloth-merchant father all over Russia.^[10]Simmons, 18. "Our talents we got from our father," Chekhov remembered, "but our soul from our mother."From the biographical sketch, adapted from a memoir by Chekhov's brother Mihail, which prefaces Constance Garnett's translation of Chekhov's letters, 1920.
In adulthood, Chekhov was to criticise his brother Alexander's treatment of his wife and children by reminding him of Pavel’s tyranny:

Chekhov attended a school for Greek boys, followed by the Taganrog ''gymnasium'', now renamed the Chekhov Gymnasium, where he was kept down for a year at fifteen for failing a Greek exam.Bartlett, 4–5. He sang at the Greek Orthodox monastery in Taganrog and in his father's choirs. In a letter of 1892, he used the word "suffering" to describe his childhood and recalled:
In 1876, disaster struck the family. Chekhov's father was declared bankrupt after over-extending his finances building a new house,^[11] and to avoid the debtor's prison fled to Moscow, where his two eldest sons, Alexander and Nikolai, were attending the university. The family lived in poverty in Moscow, Chekhov's mother physically and emotionally broken.^[12] Chekhov was left behind to sell the family possessions and finish his education.

Chekhov remained in Taganrog for three more years, boarding with a man called Selivanov who, like Lopakhin in ''The Cherry Orchard'', had bailed out the family for the price of their house.Malcolm, 25. Chekhov had to pay for his own education, which he managed by — among other jobs — private tutoring, catching and selling goldfinches, and selling short sketches to the newspapers.^[13] He sent every rouble he could spare to Moscow, along with humorous letters to cheer up the family.¹³ During this time he read widely and analytically, including Cervantes, Turgenev, Goncharov, and Schopenhauer;Letter to brother Mihail, 1 July 1876. ''Letters of Anton Chekhov''.Simmons, 26. and he wrote a full-length comedy drama, ''Fatherless'', which his brother Alexander dismissed as "an inexcusable though innocent fabrication".^[14] Chekhov also enjoyed a series of love affairs, one with the wife of a teacher.¹³
In 1879, Chekhov completed his schooling and joined his family in Moscow, having gained admission to the medical school at Moscow University.^[15]

Early writings

Chekhov now assumed responsibility for the whole family.^[16] To support them and to pay his tuition fees, he daily wrote short, humorous sketches and vignettes of contemporary Russian life, many under pseudonyms such as "Antosha Chekhonte" (Антоша Чехонте) and "Man without a Spleen" (Человек без селезенки). His prodigious output gradually earned him a reputation as a satirical chronicler of Russian street life, and by 1882 he was writing for ''Oskolki'' (''Fragments''), owned by Nikolai Leikin, one of the leading publishers of the time.Rayfield, 91. Chekhov's tone at this stage was harsher than that familiar from his mature fiction.^[17]
In 1884, Chekhov qualified as a physician, which he considered his principal profession though he made little money from it and treated the poor for free.Malcolm, 26. In 1884 and 1885, Chekhov found himself coughing blood, and in 1886 the attacks worsened; but he would not admit tuberculosis to his family and friends,From the biographical sketch, adapted from a memoir by Chekhov's brother Mihail, which prefaces Constance Garnett's translation of Chekhov's letters, 1920. confessing to Leikin, "I am afraid to submit myself to be sounded by my colleagues."^[18] He continued writing for weekly periodicals, earning enough money to move the family into progressively better accommodation. Early in 1886 he was invited to write for one of the most respected papers in Petersburg, ''Novoye Vremya'' (''New Times''), owned and edited by the millionaire magnate Alexey Suvorin, who paid per line a rate double Leikin's and allowed him three times the space.Rayfield, 128. Suvorin was to become a lifelong friend, perhaps Chekhov's closest.^[19]In many ways, the right-wing Suvorin, whom Lenin later called "The running dog of the Tzar" (Payne, XXXV), was Chekhov's opposite; "Chekhov had to function like Suvorin's kidney, extracting the businessman's poisons." Wood, 79.
Before long, Chekhov was attracting literary as well as popular attention. The sixty-four-year-old Dmitry Grigorovich, a celebrated Russian writer of the day, wrote to Chekhov after reading his short story ''The Huntsman'',^[20] "You have ''real'' talent — a talent which places you in the front rank among writers in the new generation". He went on to advise Chekhov to slow down, write less, and concentrate on literary quality.
Chekhov replied that the letter had struck him "like a thunderbolt" and confessed, "I have written my stories the way reporters write up their notes about fires — mechanically, half-consciously, caring nothing about either the reader or myself".Malcolm, 32–3. The admission may have done Chekhov a disservice, since early manuscripts reveal that he often wrote with extreme care, continually revising.Payne, XXIV. Grigorovich's advice nevertheless inspired a more serious, artistic ambition in the twenty-six-year-old. In 1887, with a little string-pulling by Grigorevich, the short story collection ''At Dusk'' (''V Sumerkakh'') won Chekhov the coveted Pushkin Prize "for the best literary production distinguished by high artistic worth".^[21]

Turning points

That year, exhausted from overwork and ill health, Chekhov took a trip to Ukraine which reawakened him to the beauty of the steppe."There is a scent of the steppe and one hears the birds sing. I see my old friends the ravens flying over the steppe." Letter to sister Masha, 2 April 1887. ''Letters of Anton Chekhov''. On his return, he began the novella-length short story ''The Steppe,'' "something rather odd and much too original", eventually published in ''Severny Vestnik'' (''Northern Herald'').^[22] In a narrative which drifts with the thought processes of the characters, Chekhov evokes a chaise journey across the steppe through the eyes of a young boy sent to live away from home, his companions a priest and a merchant. ''The Steppe'', which has been called a "dictionary of Chekhov's poetics", represented a significant advance for Chekhov, exhibiting much of the quality of his mature fiction and winning him publication in a literary journal rather than a newspaper.^[23]
In Autumn 1887, a theatre manager named Korsh commissioned Chekhov to write a play, the result being ''Ivanov'', written in a fortnight and produced that November.From the biographical sketch, adapted from a memoir by Chekhov's brother Mihail, which prefaces Constance Garnett's translation of Chekhov's letters, 1920. Though Chekhov found the experience "sickening", and painted a comic portrait of the chaotic production in a letter to his brother Alexander, the play was a hit, praised, to Chekhov's bemusement, as a work of originality.Letter to brother Alexander, 20 November 1887. ''Letters of Anton Chekhov''. Mihail Chekhov considered ''Ivanov'' a key moment in his brother's intellectual development and literary career.From the biographical sketch, adapted from a memoir by Chekhov's brother Mihail, which prefaces Constance Garnett's translation of Chekhov's letters, 1920. From this period comes an observation of Chekhov's which has become known as "Chekhov's Gun", noted by Ilia Gurliand from a conversation: "If in Act I you have a pistol hanging on the wall, then it must fire in the last act."^[24]Simmons, 190.
The death of Chekhov's brother Nikolai from tuberculosis in 1889 influenced ''A Dreary Story'', finished that September, about a man who confronts the end of a life which he realises has been without purpose.''A Dreary Story''. Retrieved 16 February 2007.Simmons, 186–91. Mihail Chekhov, who recorded his brother's depression and restlessness after Nikolai's death, was researching prisons at the time as part of his law studies, and Chekhov, in a search for purpose in his own life, soon became obsessed with the issue of prison reform himself.From the biographical sketch, adapted from a memoir by Chekhov's brother Mihail, which prefaces Constance Garnett's translation of Chekhov's letters, 1920.

Sakhalin

In 1890, Chekhov undertook an arduous journey by train, horse-drawn carriage, and river steamer to the far east of Russia and the katorga, or penal colony, on Sakhalin Island, north of Japan, where he spent three months interviewing thousands of convicts and settlers for a census. The letters Chekhov wrote during the two-and-a-half month journey to Sakhalin are considered among his best.^[25] His remarks to his sister about Tomsk were to become notorious.^[26]Rayfield, 224.
The inhabitants of Tomsk later retaliated by erecting a mocking statue of Chekhov.
What Chekhov witnessed on Sakhalin shocked and angered him, including floggings, embezzlement of supplies, and forced prostitution of women: "There were times," he wrote, when "I felt that I saw before me the extreme limits of man's degradation."^[27]Rayfield 230. He was particularly moved by the plight of the children living in the penal colony with their parents. For example:

Chekhov later concluded that charity and subscription were not the answer, but that the government had a duty to finance humane treatment of the convicts. His findings were published in 1893 and 1894 as ''Ostrov Sakhalin'' (''The Island of Sakhalin''), a work of social science, not literature, and worthy and informative rather than brilliant.Malcolm, 125.Such is the general critical view of the work, but Simmons calls it a "valuable and intensely human document". Simmons, 229. Chekhov found literary expression for the hell of Sakhalin in his long short story ''The Murder'',^[28] the last section of which is set on Sakhalin, where the murderer Yakov loads coal in the night, longing for home.

Melikhovo

In 1892, Chekhov bought the small country estate of Melikhovo, about forty miles south of Moscow, where he lived until 1899 with his family. "It's nice to be a lord," he joked to Shcheglov;^[29] but he took his responsibilities as a landlord seriously and soon made himself useful to the local peasants. As well as organising relief for victims of the famine and cholera outbreaks of 1892, he went on to build three schools, a fire station, and a clinic, and to donate his medical services to peasants for miles around, despite frequent recurrences of his tuberculosis.Wood, 78.Payne, XXXI.
Mihail Chekhov, a member of the household at Melikhovo, described the extent of his brother's medical commitments:

Chekhov at Melikhovo

Chekhov’s expenditure on drugs was considerable; but the greatest cost was making journeys of several hours to visit the sick, which reduced his time for writing.From the biographical sketch, adapted from a memoir by Chekhov's brother Mihail, which prefaces Constance Garnett's translation of Chekhov's letters, 1920. Chekhov’s work as a doctor, however, enriched his writing by bringing him into intimate contact with all sections of Russian society: for example, he witnessed at first hand the unhealthy and cramped living conditions of many peasants. In the short story ''Peasants'', he describes a family's sleeping arrangements:
Chekhov visited the upper classes too, recording in his notebook: "Aristocrats? The same ugly bodies and physical uncleanliness, the same toothless old age and disgusting death, as with market-women."''Note-Book''. Retrieved 16 February 2007.
Chekhov began writing his play ''The Seagull'' in 1894, in a lodge he had built in the orchard at Melikhovo. In the two years since moving to the estate, he had refurbished the house, taken up agriculture and horticulture, tended orchard and pond, and planted many trees, which, according to Mihail, he "looked after… as though they were his children. Like Colonel Vershinin in his ''Three Sisters'', as he looked at them he dreamed of what they would be like in three or four hundred years."From the biographical sketch, adapted from a memoir by Chekhov's brother Mihail, which prefaces Constance Garnett's translation of Chekhov's letters, 1920.
The first night of ''The Seagull'' on 17 October 1896 at the Alexandrinsky Theatre in Petersburg was a fiasco, booed by the audience, and stung Chekhov into renouncing the theatre.^[30] But the play so impressed the playwright Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko that he convinced Konstantin Stanislavsky to direct it for the innovative Moscow Art Theatre in 1898.Benedetti, ''Stanislavski: An Introduction'', 25. Stanislavsky's attention to psychological realism and ensemble playing coaxed the buried subtleties from the text and restored Chekhov's interest in playwriting.^[31] The Art Theatre commissioned more plays from Chekhov and the following year staged ''Uncle Vanya'', which Chekhov had completed in 1896.^[32]

Yalta

Chekhov with Leo Tolstoy at Yalta, 1900

In March 1897 Chekhov suffered a major haemorrhage of the lungs while on a visit to Moscow and, with great difficulty, was persuaded to enter a clinic, where the doctors diagnosed tuberculosis on the upper part of his lungs and ordered a change in his manner of life.^[33]
After his father's death in 1898, Chekhov bought a plot of land at Alushta, near Yalta, and built a villa there, into which he moved with his mother and sister the following year. Though he planted trees and flowers at Alushta, kept dogs and tame cranes, and received guests such as Leo Tolstoy and Maxim Gorky, Chekhov was always relieved to leave his "hot Siberia" for Moscow or travels abroad. He vowed to move to Taganrog as soon as a water supply was installed there.^[34]Bartlett, 2. At Alushta he completed two more plays for the Art Theatre, composing with greater difficulty than in the days when he "wrote serenely, the way I eat pancakes now"; he took a year each over ''Three Sisters'' and ''The Cherry Orchard''.^[35]
On 25 May 1901 Chekhov married Olga Knipper — quietly, owing to his horror of weddings — a former protegée and sometime lover of Nemirovich-Danchenko whom he had first met at rehearsals for ''The Seagull''.^[36]Benedetti, ''Dear Writer, Dear Actress'', 125."Olga's relations with Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko were more than professional." Rayfield, 500. Up to that point, Chekhov, who has been called "Russia's most elusive literary bachelor",^[37] had preferred passing liaisons and visits to brothels over commitment;^[38] he had once written to Suvorin:

Chekhov and Olga, 1901, on honeymoon

The letter proved prophetic of Chekhov's marital arrangements with Olga: he lived largely at Yalta, she in Moscow, pursuing her acting career. In 1902, Olga suffered a miscarriage; and Donald Rayfield has offered evidence, based on the couple's letters, that conception may have occurred when Chekhov and Olga were apart.^[39]There was certainly tension between the couple after the miscarriage, though Simmons, 569, and Benedetti, ''Dear Writer, Dear Actress'', 241, put this down to Chekhov's mother and sister blaming the miscarriage on Olga's late-night lifestyle of socialising with her actor friends. The literary legacy of this long-distance marriage is a correspondence which preserves gems of theatre history, including shared complaints about Stanislavsky's directing methods and Chekhov's advice to Olga about performing in his plays.^[40]
At Yalta, Chekhov wrote one of his most famous stories, ''The Lady with the Dog'' (also called ''Lady with Lapdog''),^[41] which depicts what at first seems a casual liaison between a married man and a married woman in Yalta. Neither expects anything lasting from the encounter, but they find themselves drawn back to each other, risking the security of their family lives.
At the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War in Feb. 1904 Chekhov volunteered to be an Army doctor. The Tsar, aware of Chekhov's poor health, refused the offer.

Death

By May 1904, Chekhov was terminally ill. "Everyone who saw him secretly thought the end was not far off," Mihail Chekhov recalled, "but the nearer Chekhov was to the end, the less he seemed to realize it."From the biographical sketch, adapted from a memoir by Chekhov's brother Mihail, which prefaces Constance Garnett's translation of Chekhov's letters, 1920. On 3 June he set off with Olga for the German spa town of Badenweiler in the Black Forest, from where he wrote outwardly jovial letters to his sister Masha describing the food and surroundings and assuring her and his mother that he was getting better. In his last letter, he complained about the way the German women dressed.^[42]

Chekhov's grave, Novodevichy Cemetery, Moscow

Chekhov’s death has become one of "the great set pieces of literary history",^[43] retold, embroidered, and fictionalised many times since, notably in the short story ''Errand'' by Raymond Carver. In 1908, Olga wrote this account of her husband’s last moments:
Chekhov’s body was transported to Moscow in a refrigerated railway car for fresh oysters, a detail which offended Gorky.^[44] Some of the thousands of mourners followed the funeral procession of a General Keller by mistake, to the accompaniment of a military band. Chekhov was buried next to his father at the Novodevichy Cemetery.^[45]

Legacy

A few months before he died, Chekhov told the writer Ivan Bunin he thought people might go on reading him for seven years. "Why seven?" asked Bunin. "Well, seven and a half," Chekhov replied. "That’s not bad. I’ve got six years to live."^[46]

Chekhov with Gorky at Yalta

Always modest, Chekhov could hardly have imagined the extent of his posthumous reputation. The ovations for ''The Cherry Orchard'' in the year of his death showed him how high he had risen in the affection of the Russian public — by then he was second in literary celebrity only to Tolstoy, who outlived him by six years — but after his death, Chekhov's fame soon spread further afield. Constance Garnett's translations won him an English-language readership and the admiration of writers such as James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, and Katherine Mansfield, the last arguably to the point of plagiarism.^[47] The Russian critic D.S. Mirsky, who lived in England, explained Chekhov's popularity in that country by his "unusually complete rejection of what we may call the heroic values".^[48] In Russia itself, Chekhov's drama fell out of fashion after the revolution but was later adapted to the Soviet agenda, with Lophakin, for example, reinvented as a hero of the new order, taking an axe to the cherry orchard.^[49]"They won't allow a play which is seen to lament the lost estates of the gentry." Letter of Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, quoted by Anatoly Smeliansky in ''Chekhov at the Moscow Art Theatre'', from ''The Cambridge Companion to Chekhov'', 31–2.
One of the first non-Russians to praise Chekhov's plays was George Bernard Shaw, who subtitled his ''Heartbreak House'' "A Fantasia in the Russian Manner on English Themes" and noted similarities between the predicament of the British landed class and that of their Russian counterparts as depicted by Chekhov: "the same nice people, the same utter futility".^[50]
In America, Chekhov's reputation began its rise slightly later, partly through the influence of the Stanislavsky System, with its notion of subtext. "Chekhov often expressed his thought not in speeches," wrote Stanislavsky, "but in pauses or between the lines or in replies consisting of a single word… the characters often feel and think things not expressed in the lines they speak".^[51]"It was Chekhov who first deliberately wrote dialogue in which the mainstream of emotional action ran underneath the surface. It was he who articulated the notion that human beings hardly ever speak in explicit terms among each other about their deepest emotions, that the great, tragic, climactic moments are often happening beneath outwardly trivial conversation." Martin Esslin, from ''Text and Subtext in Shavian Drama'', in ''1922: Shaw and the last Hundred Years'', ed. Bernard. F. Dukore, Penn State Press, 1994, ISBN 978-0-271-01324-4, 200. The Group Theatre, in particular, developed the subtextual approach to drama, influencing generations of American playwrights, screenwriters, and actors, including Clifford Odets, Elia Kazan and, in particular, Lee Strasberg. In turn, Strasberg's Actors Studio and its "Method" acting approach influenced many actors, including Marlon Brando and Robert De Niro, though by then the Chekhov tradition may have been distorted by a preoccupation with realism.^[52] In 1981, the playwright Tennessee Williams adapted ''The Seagull'' as ''The Notebook of Trigorin''.
Chekhov is now the most popular playwright in the English-speaking world after Shakespeare;^[53] but some writers believe his short stories represent the greater achievement."The plays lack the seamless authority of the fiction: there are great characters, wonderful scenes, tremendous passages, moments of acute melancholy and sagacity, but the parts appear greater than the whole." ''A Chekhov Lexicon,'' by William Boyd, ''The Guardian'', 3 July 2004. Retrieved 16 February 2007. Raymond Carver, who wrote the short story ''Errand'' about Chekhov's death, believed Chekhov the greatest of all short-story writers:
Ernest Hemingway, another of Carver's influences, was more grudging, saying: "Chekhov wrote about 6 good stories. But he was an amateur writer".^[54] And Vladimir Nabokov once complained of Chekhov's "medley of dreadful prosaisms, ready-made epithets, repetitions".^[55] But he also declared ''The Lady with the Dog'' "one of the greatest stories ever written" and described Chekhov as writing "the way one person relates to another the most important things in his life, slowly and yet without a break, in a slightly subdued voice."^[56]
For the writer William Boyd, Chekhov's breakthrough was to abandon what William Gerhardie called the "event plot" for something more "blurred, interrupted, mauled or otherwise tampered with by life".^[57]
Virginia Woolf mused on the unique quality of a Chekhov story in ''The Common Reader'':

See also

★ Bibliography of Anton Chekhov

Notes

1. "Greatest short story writer who ever lived." Raymond Carver (in Rosamund Bartlett’s introduction to ''About Love and Other Stories'', XX); "Quite probably the best short-story writer ever." ''A Chekhov Lexicon'', by William Boyd, ''The Guardian'', 3 July 2004. Retrieved 16 February 2007.
2. Letter to Alexei Suvorin, 11 September 1888. ''Letters of Anton Chekhov''.
3. "Actors climb up Chekhov like a mountain, roped together, sharing the glory if they ever make it to the summit". Actor Ian McKellen, quoted in Miles, 9.
4. "Chekhov's art demands a theatre of mood." Vsevolod Meyerhold, quoted in Allen, 13; "A richer submerged life in the text is characteristic of a more profound drama of realism, one which depends less on the externals of presentation." Styan, 84.
5. Malcolm, 121.
6. Tolstoy dubbed Chekhov "the Pushkin of prose". Simmons, 322.
7. "Chekhov is said to be the father of the modern short story". Malcolm, 87.
8. "This use of stream-of-consciousness would, in later years, become the basis of Chekhov's innovation in stagecraft; it is also his innovation in fiction." Wood, 81.
9. "You are right in demanding that an artist should take an intelligent attitude to his work, but you confuse two things: solving a problem and stating a problem correctly. It is only the second that is obligatory for the artist." Letter to Suvorin, 27 October, 1888. ''Letters of Anton Chekhov''.
10. Payne, XVII.
11. He had been cheated by a contractor called Mironov. Rayfield, 31.
12. Letter to cousin Mihail, 10 May 1877. ''Letters of Anton Chekhov''.
13. Payne, XX.
14. Simmons, 33.
15. Rayfield, 69.
16. Wood, 79.
17. "There is in these miniatures an arresting potion of cruelty… The wonderfully compassionate Chekhov was yet to mature." ''Vodka miniatures, belching and angry cats'', George Steiner's review of ''The Undiscovered Chekhov'' in ''The Observer'', 13 May 2001. Retrieved 16 February 2007.
18. Letter to N.A .Leikin, 6 April 1886. ''Letters of Anton Chekhov''.
19. They only ever fell out once, when Chekhov objected to the anti-Semitic attacks in ''New Times'' against Dreyfus and Zola in 1898. Rayfield, 448–50.
20. ''The Huntsman''. Retrieved 16 February 2007.
21. Simmons, 160.
22. Letter to Grigorovich, 12 January 1888. Quoted by Malcolm, 137.
23. "''The Steppe'', as Michael Finke suggests, is 'a sort of dictionary of Chekhov's poetics,' a kind of sample case of the concealed literary weapons Chekhov would deploy in his work to come." Malcolm, 147.
24. Rayfield, 203.
25. Malcolm, 129.
26. Simmons, 223.
27. Wood, 85.
28. ''The Murder''. Retrieved 16 February 2007.
29. Letter to I.L. Shcheglov, 9 March 1892. ''Letters of Anton Chekhov''.
30. Rayfield, 394–8.
31. Chekhov and the Art Theatre, in Stanislavsky's words, were united in a common desire "to achieve artistic simplicity and truth on the stage". Allen, 11.
32. Rayfield, 390–1. Rayfield draws from his critical study ''Chekhov's "Uncle Vanya" and the "Wood Demon"'' (1995), which anatomised the evolution of the ''Wood Demon'' into ''Uncle Vanya'' — "one of Chekhov's most furtive achievements".
33. Letter to Suvorin, 1 April 1897. ''Letters of Anton Chekhov''.
34. Olga Knipper, ''Memoir'', in Benedetti, ''Dear Writer, Dear Actress'', 37, 270.
35. Malcolm, 170–1.
36. "I have a horror of weddings, the congratulations and the champagne, standing around, glass in hand with an endless grin on your face." Letter to Olga Knipper, 19 April 1901.
37. Harvey Pitcher in ''Chekhov's Leading Lady'', quoted in Malcolm, 59.
38. "Chekhov had the temperament of a philanderer. Sexually, he preferred brothels or swift liaisons." Wood, 78.
39. Rayfield also tentatively suggests, drawing on obstetric clues, that Olga suffered an ectopic pregnancy rather than a miscarriage. Rayfield, 556–7.
40. Benedetti, ''Dear Writer, Dear Actress: The Love Letters of Olga Knipper and Anton Chekhov''.
41. ''The Lady with the Dog''. Retrieved 16 February 2007.
42. Letter to sister Masha, 28 June 1904. ''Letters of Anton Chekhov''.
43. Malcolm, 62.
44. "Banality revenged itself upon him by a nasty prank, for it saw that his corpse, the corpse of a poet, was put into a railway truck 'For the Conveyance of Oysters'." Maxim Gorky in ''Reminiscences of Anton Chekhov''. Retrieved 16 February 2007.
45. Malcolm, 91; Alexander Kuprin in ''Reminiscences of Anton Chekhov''. Retrieved 16 February 2007.
46. Payne, XXXVI.
47. The issues surrounding the close similarities between Mansfield's 1910 story ''The Child Who Was Tired'' and Chekhov's ''Sleepy'' are summarised in William H. New's ''Reading Mansfield and Metaphors of Reform'', McGill-Queen’s Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0-7735-1791-2, 15–17.
48. Wood, 77.
49. Allen, 88.
50. Anna Obraztsova, ''Bernard Shaw's Dialogue with Chekhov'', in Miles, 43–4.
51. Reynolds, Elizabeth (ed), ''Stanislavski's Legacy'', Theatre Arts Books, 1987, ISBN 978-0-87830-127-0, 81, 83.
52. "Lee Strasberg became in my opinion a victim of the traditional idea of Chekhovian theatre… [he left] no room for Chekhov's imagery." Georgii Tostonogov on Strasberg's production of ''Three Sisters'' in ''The Drama Review'' (winter 1968), quoted by Styan, 121.
53. ''From Russia, with Love'', by Rosamund Bartlett, ''The Guardian'', 15 July 2004. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
54. Letter from Ernest Hemingway to Archibald MacLeish, 1925 (from ''Selected Letters'', p. 179), in ''Ernest Hemingway on Writing'', Ed Larry W. Phillips, Touchstone, (1984) 1999, ISBN 978-0-684-18119-6, 101.
55. Wood, 82.
56. From Vladimir Nabokov's ''Lectures on Russian Literature'', quoted by Francine Prose in ''Learning from Chekhov'', 231.
57. "For the first time in literature the fluidity and randomness of life was made the form of the fiction. Before Chekhov, the event-plot drove all fictions." William Boyd, referring to the novelist William Gerhardie's analysis in ''Anton Chekhov: A Critical Study'', 1923. ''A Chekhov Lexicon,'' by William Boyd, ''The Guardian'', 3 July 2004. Retrieved 16 February 2007.

References

★ Allen, David, ''Performing Chekhov'', Routledge (UK), 2001, ISBN 978-0-415-18934-7

★ Bartlett, Rosamund, and Anthony Phillips (translators), ''Chekhov: A Life in Letters'', Penguin Books, 2004, ISBN 978-0-14-044922-8

★ Bartlett, Rosamund, ''Chekhov: Scenes from a Life'', Free Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0-7432-3074-2

★ Benedetti, Jean (editor and translator), ''Dear Writer, Dear Actress: The Love Letters of Olga Knipper and Anton Chekhov'', Methuen Publishing Ltd, 1998 edition, ISBN 978-0-413-72390-1

★ Benedetti, Jean, Stanislavski: An Introduction, Methuen Drama, 1989 edition, ISBN 978-0-413-50030-4

★ Chekhov, Anton, ''About Love and Other Stories'', translated by Rosamund Bartlett, Oxford University Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0-19-280260-6

★ Chekhov, Anton, ''The Undiscovered Chekhov: Fifty New Stories'', translated by Peter Constantine, Duck Editions, 2001, ISBN 978-0-7156-3106-5

★ Chekhov, Anton, ''Forty Stories'', translated and with an introduction by Robert Payne, New York, Vintage, 1991 edition, ISBN 978-0-679-73375-1

★ Chekhov, Anton, ''Letters of Anton Chekhov to His Family and Friends with Biographical Sketch'', translated by Constance Garnett, Macmillan, 1920. Full text at Gutenberg. Retrieved 16 February 2007.

★ Chekhov, Anton, ''Note-Book of Anton Chekhov,'' translated by S.S. Koteliansky and Leonard Woolf, B.W. Heubsch, 1921. Full text at Gutenberg. Retrieved 16 February 2007.

★ Chekhov, Anton, ''Seven Short Novels'', translated by Barbara Makanowitzky, W.W.Norton & Company, 2003 edition, ISBN 978-0-393-00552-3

★ Finke, Michael, ''Chekhov's 'Steppe': A Metapoetic Journey'', an essay in ''Anton Chekhov Rediscovered'', ed Savely Senderovich and Munir Sendich, Michigan Russian Language Journal, 1988, ISBN 9999838855

★ Gerhardie, William, ''Anton Chekhov'', Macdonald, (1923) 1974 edition, ISBN 978-0-356-04609-9

★ Gorky, Maksim, Alexander Kuprin, and I.A. Bunin, ''Reminiscences of Anton Chekhov'', translated by S.S. Koteliansky and Leonard Woolf, B.W.Huebsch, 1921. Read at eldritchpress. Retrieved 16 February 2007.

★ Gottlieb, Vera, and Paul Allain (eds), ''The Cambridge Companion to Chekhov'', Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-521-58917-8

★ Jackson, Robert Louis, ''Dostoevsky in Chekhov's Garden of Eden — 'Because of Little Apples','' in ''Dialogues with Dostoevsky'', Stanford University Press, 1993, ISBN 978-0-8047-2120-2

★ Nabokov, Vladimir, ''Anton Chekhov'', in ''Lectures on Russian Literature'', Harvest/HBJ Books, [1981] 2002 edition, ISBN 978-0-15-602776-2.

★ Malcolm, Janet, ''Reading Chekhov, a Critical Journey'', Granta Publications, 2004 edition, ISBN 978-1-86207-635-8

★ Miles, Patrick (ed), ''Chekhov on the British Stage'', Cambridge University Press, 1993, ISBN 978-0-521-38467-4

★ Pitcher, Harvey, ''Chekhov's Leading Lady: Portrait of the Actress Olga Knipper'', J Murray, 1979, ISBN 978-0-7195-3681-6

★ Prose, Francine, ''Learning from Chekhov'', in ''Writers on Writing'', ed. Robert Pack and Jay Parini, UPNE, 1991, ISBN 978-0-87451-560-2

★ Rayfield, Donald, '', Henry Holt & Co, 1998, ISBN 978-0-8050-5747-8

★ Simmons, Ernest J., ''Chekhov: A Biography'', University of Chicago Press, (1962) 1970 edition, ISBN 978-0-226-75805-3

★ Stanislavski, Konstantin, ''My Life in Art'', Methuen Drama, 1980 edition, ISBN 978-0-413-46200-8

★ Styan, John Louis, ''Modern Drama in Theory and Practice'', Cambridge University Press, 1981, ISBN 978-0-521-29628-1

★ Wood, James, ''What Chekhov Meant by Life'', in ''The Broken Estate: Essays in Literature and Belief'', Pimlico, 2000 edition, ISBN 978-0-7126-6557-5

External links

★ . All Constance Garnett's translations of the short stories and letters are available, plus the edition of the ''Note-book'' translated by S.S. Koteliansky and Leonard Woolf (see the "References" section for print publication details of all of these). The site also has translations of all the plays.

★ Антон Павлович Чехов Texts of Chekhov's works in the original Russian. Retrieved 16 February 2007.