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EspañolAPPROPRIATION (ART)
(Redirected from Appropriation art)
To appropriate something involves taking possession of it. In the visual arts, the term '''appropriation''' often refers to the use of borrowed elements in the creation of new work. The borrowed elements may include images, forms or styles from art history or from popular culture, or materials and techniques from non-art contexts. Since the 1980s the term has also referred more specifically to quoting the work of another artist to create a new work. The new work may or may not alter the original.
Aspects of appropriation appear in nearly all areas of visual art history if one considers the basic act of making art as the borrowing of images or concepts from the surrounding world and re-interpreting them into artwork. For example, some might classify Leonardo da Vinci as an ''appropriation'' artist, because he used recombinant methods of appropriation, borrowing from sources as diverse as biology, mathematics, engineering and art, and then synthesizing them into inventions and artworks.
Some art historians regard Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque as the first to appropriate items from a non-art context into their work. In 1912, Picasso pasted a piece of oil cloth onto the canvas. Subsequent compositions, like ''Guitar, Newspaper, Glass and Bottle'' (1913) in which Picasso used newspaper clippings to create forms, became categorized as ''synthetic cubism''. The two artists incorporated aspects of the "real world" into their canvases, opening up discussion of signification and artistic representation.
Five years later, in 1917, Marcel Duchamp introduced the idea of the readymade. That year he entered '' into the American Society of Independent Artists exhibition. The work consisted of a urinal, lying on its side atop a pedestal with the signature "R. Mutt". The urinal appeared neither original nor rare, Duchamp's "creativity" as an artist lies in the gesture of selecting the urinal as an art piece and displaying it in an artistic context. Duchamp also went so far as to use existing art in his work, appropriating an apparent copy of the ''Mona Lisa'' into his piece, ''L.H.O.O.Q''. Recent speculation regarding Duchamp's appropriated urinal claimed that the urinal was "non-standard" and "non-functional," and that Duchamp "allegedly custom-designed it along with his other supposed ''readymades''," however, this has never been substantiated.
The Dada movement (including Duchamp as an associate) continued with the appropriation of everyday objects, but their appropriation did not attempt to elevate the "low" to "high" art status, rather it produced art in which chance and randomness formed the basis of creation. Dada artists included Hugo Ball, Emmy Hennings, Jean Arp, Hans Richter, Richard Huelsenbeck, Andre Breton, Tristan Tzara, and Francis Picabia. A reaction to oppressive intellectual rigidity in both art and everyday society, Dada works featured deliberate irrationality and the rejection of the prevailing standards of art. Kurt Schwitters, who produced art at the same time as the Dadaists, shows a similar sense of the bizarre in his "merz" works. He constructed these from found objects, and they took the form of large constructions that later generations would call installations.
The Surrealists, coming after the Dada movement, also incorporated the use of "found" objects such as Méret Oppenheim's ''Object (Luncheon in Fur)'' (1936). These objects took on new meaning when combined with other unlikely and unsettling objects.
In the 1950s Robert Rauschenberg used what he dubbed "combines", literally combining readymade objects such as tires or beds, painting, silk-screens, collage, and photography. Similarly, Jasper Johns, working at the same time as Rauschenberg, incorporated found objects into his work. Johns also appropriated symbolic images such as the American flag or the "target" symbol into his work.
The Fluxus art movement also utilised appropriation: its members blended different artistic disciplines including visual art, music, and literature. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s they staged "action" events, engaged in politics and public speaking, and produced sculptural works featuring unconventional materials. The group even appropriated the postal system in developing mail art. The performances sought to elevate the banal by appropriating it as "art" and dissembling the high culture of serious music.
Along with artists such as Roy Lichtenstein and Claes Oldenburg, Andy Warhol appropriated images from commercial art and popular culture as well as the techniques of these industries. Often called "pop artists", they saw mass popular culture as the main vernacular culture, shared by all irrespective of education. These artists fully engaged with the ephemera produced from this mass-produced culture, embracing expendability and distancing themselves from the evidence of an artist's hand.
The term '''appropriation art''' came into common use in the 1980s with artists such as Sherrie Levine, who addressed the act of appropriating itself as a theme in art. Levine often quotes entire works into her own, for example photographing photographs of Walker Evans. Challenging ideas of originality, drawing attention to relations between power, gender and creativity, consumerism and commodity value, the social sources and uses of art, Levine plays with the theme of "almost same".
During the 1970s and 1980s Richard Prince re-photographed advertisements such as for Marlboro cigarettes or photo-journalism shots. Prince's work spoke to issues of materialism and the idea of spectacle over lived experience.
Appropriation artists may comment on more than just commercial or "low" culture. Joseph Kosuth appropriated images to engage with philosophy and epistemological theory. Other artists working during this time with appropriation included Jeff Koons, Barbara Kruger, and Malcolm Morley.
In the 1990s artists continued to produce appropriation art, using it as a medium to address theories and social issues, rather than focussing on the works themselves. Damian Loeb used film and cinema to comment on themes of simulacrum and reality. Other high-profile artists working at this time included Christian Marclay, Deborah Kass and Damien Hirst.
Artists working today continue to incorporate non-art elements and to quote from existing art. For example, Cory Arcangel incorporates aspects of cultural nostalgia through re-working vintage video games and computer software. Other contemporary appropriation artists include the Chapman brothers, Benjamin Edwards, Joy Garnett, Nikki S. Lee, Paul Pfeiffer, Pierre Huyghe and Rico Gatson.
The nature of appropriation art, the borrowing of elements for new work, brings up a number of contentious copyright issues. One debate addresses the extent to which appropriation art has sufficient originality. In the case of appropriation the appropriating artist copies the expressive form (as opposed to merely the idea) of the original work. A number of case-law examples have emerged that investigate the division between transformation of a work and simple derivation of a work.
'Andy Warhol' faced a series of law-suits from photographers whose work he appropriated and silk-screened. Patricia Caulfield, one such photographer, had taken a picture of flowers for a photography demonstration for a photography magazine. Warhol had covered the walls of Leo Castelli's New York gallery in 1964 with the silk-screened reproductions of Caulfield's photograph. After seeing a poster of his work in a bookstore, Caulfield claimed ownership of the image and while Warhol was the author of the successful silk screens, he settled out of court, giving Caulfield a royalty for future use of the image as well as two of the paintings.
'Jeff Koons' has also confronted issues of copyright due to his appropriation work (see ''Rogers v. Koons''). Photographer Art Rogers brought suit against Koons for copyright infringement in 1989. Koons work, ''String of Puppies'' sculpturally reproduced Rogers' black and white photograph that had appeared on an airport greeting card that Koons had bought. Though he claimed fair use and parody in his defense, Koons lost the case — partially due to the tremendous success he had as an artist. The parody argument also failed, as the appeals court drew a distinction between creating a parody of modern society in general and a parody directed at a specific work, finding parody of a specific work, especially of a very obscure one, too weak to justify the fair use of the original.
In October 2006, Koons won one for "fair use." For a seven-painting commission for the Deutsche Guggenheim Berlin, Koons drew on part of a photograph taken by 'Andrea Blanch' titled ''Silk Sandals by Gucci'' and published in the August 2000 issue of ''Allure'' magazine to illustrate an article on metallic makeup. Koons took the image of the legs and diamond sandals from that photo (omitting other background details) and used it in his painting ''Niagara'', which also includes three other pairs of women’s legs dangling surreally over a landscape of pies and cakes.
In his court filing, Koons' lawyer, 'John Koegel', said that ''Niagara'' is "an entirely new artistic work... that comments on and celebrates society's appetites and indulgences, as reflected in and encouraged by a ubiquitous barrage of advertising and promotional images of food, entertainment, fashion and beauty."
In his decision, 'Judge Louis L. Stanton' of U.S. District Court found that ''Niagara'' was indeed a "transformative use" of Blanch's photograph. "The painting's use does not 'supersede' or duplicate the objective of the original," the judge wrote, "but uses it as raw material in a novel way to create new information, new esthetics and new insights. Such use, whether successful or not artistically, is transformative."
The detail of Blanch's photograph used by Koons, it seems, is only marginally copyrightable. Blanch has no right to the appearance of the Gucci sandals, "perhaps the most striking element of the photograph," the judge wrote. And without the sandals, only a representation of a women's legs remains -- and that is "not sufficiently original to deserve much copyright protection."
Blanch is a 20-year veteran of the photo world; she started out as an assistant for Richard Avedon. (more information at [1]Artnet News, January 19, 2006)
In May 2006 Blanch filed an appeal and lost [2]; (read lengthy decision, 2nd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, Blanch v. Koons, 05-6433-cv, decided October 26, 2006).
In 2000, 'Damien Hirst's' sculpture ''Hymn'' (which Charles Saatchi had bought for a reported £1m) was exhibited in ''Ant Noises'' in the Saatchi Gallery. Hirst was sued for breach of copyright over this sculpture, which was a 20ft six ton enlargement of his son Connor's 14" ''Young Scientist Anatomy Set'' designed by Norman Emms, 10,000 of which are sold a year by Hull-based toy manufacturer Humbrol for £14.99 each. Hirst paid an undisclosed sum to two charities, Children Nationwide and the Toy Trust in an out-of-court settlement. The charitable donation was less than Emms had hoped for. Hirst sold three more copies of his sculpture for similar amounts to the first.
In the field of the Internet and videogames, Miltos Manetas appropriates imagery and animations to create his own works. Pieces such as JacksonPollock.org, Super Marios Sleeping, and Thank You Warhol are all created by appropriation. Ultimately, the artist borrowed the last name of the famous conceptual artist Joseph Kosuth and created a website that in the conceptual style of Joseph Kosuth declares: ''This is not Joseph Kosuth''
Artists who have appropriated, sampled or borrowed elements of pre-existing work for use in new work:
★ Cory Arcangel
★ Gordon Bennett
★ Mike Bidlo
★ Georges Braque
★ Glenn Brown
★ Jake and Dinos Chapman
★ Joseph Cornell
★ Mark Divo
★ Marcel Duchamp
★ Benjamin Edwards
★ Jodi
★ Eddy Gabriel
★ [3]
★ Rico Gatson
★ Joy Garnett
★ Leon Golub
★ Douglas Gordon
★ Hans Haacke
★ Damien Hirst
★ Pierre Huyghe
★ Jasper Johns
★ Karen Kilimnik
★ Jeff Koons
★ Joseph Kosuth
★ Barbara Kruger
★ Matthieu Laurette
★ Louise Lawler
★ Lennie Lee
★ Nikki s. lee
★ Sherrie Levine
★ Roy Lichtenstein
★ Damian Loeb
★ Robert Longo
★ Miltos Manetas
★ Christian Marclay
★ John McHale
★ Aleksandra Mir
★ Joan Miró
★ Yasumasa Morimura
★ Malcolm Morley
★ Vik Muniz
★ Claes Oldenburg
★ Meret Oppenheim
★ Pablo Picasso
★ Rick Prelinger
★ Richard Prince
★ Robert Rauschenberg
★ Gerhard Richter
★ Rob Scholte
★ David Salle
★ Peter Saville
★ Kurt Schwitters
★ Cindy Sherman
★ Elaine Sturtevant
★ Philip Taaffe
★ Kelley Walker
★ Andy Warhol
★ Thomas Gillett
★ Art intervention
★ Found art
★ Classificatory disputes about art
★ Conceptual art
★ Collage
★ Fair use
★ Postmodern art
★ Appropriation Art Coalition-Canada
★ Blanche v. Koons Decision (August 2005)
★ Koons Wins Landmark Copyright Lawsuit 1/2006
★ Blanch v. Koons, 05-6433-cv 2nd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals; decided October 26, 2006
★ Artist Koons' 'Transformative' Use of Photo Affirmed by 2nd Circuit Koons wins appeal (2006); article on Law.com
★ Koons Affirmed (Don't Blanch) Koons wins appeal (2006); article on The Patry Copyright blog
★ Fair Use
★ Fair Use Network
★ Creative Commons
★ Free Culture an international student movement
★ Comedies of Fair U$e
★ The New York Institute for the Humanities Comedies of Fair U$e conference (Archive.org)
★ Open Source Culture: Intellectual Property, Technology, and the Arts, Columbia Digital Media Center lecture series
★ Public Domain
★ Sherri Levine Interview
★ Duchamp
★ Lichtenstein
★ Warhol
★ Mona Lisa Parodies
★ Appropriation Art, History
''Composition with Fruit, Guitar and Glass''. 1912. Pablo Picasso.
''L.H.O.O.Q.'' (1919). Marcel Duchamp.
To appropriate something involves taking possession of it. In the visual arts, the term '''appropriation''' often refers to the use of borrowed elements in the creation of new work. The borrowed elements may include images, forms or styles from art history or from popular culture, or materials and techniques from non-art contexts. Since the 1980s the term has also referred more specifically to quoting the work of another artist to create a new work. The new work may or may not alter the original.
| Contents |
| History |
| Appropriation art and copyrights |
| Appropriation artists |
| See also |
| External links |
History
Aspects of appropriation appear in nearly all areas of visual art history if one considers the basic act of making art as the borrowing of images or concepts from the surrounding world and re-interpreting them into artwork. For example, some might classify Leonardo da Vinci as an ''appropriation'' artist, because he used recombinant methods of appropriation, borrowing from sources as diverse as biology, mathematics, engineering and art, and then synthesizing them into inventions and artworks.
Some art historians regard Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque as the first to appropriate items from a non-art context into their work. In 1912, Picasso pasted a piece of oil cloth onto the canvas. Subsequent compositions, like ''Guitar, Newspaper, Glass and Bottle'' (1913) in which Picasso used newspaper clippings to create forms, became categorized as ''synthetic cubism''. The two artists incorporated aspects of the "real world" into their canvases, opening up discussion of signification and artistic representation.
Five years later, in 1917, Marcel Duchamp introduced the idea of the readymade. That year he entered '' into the American Society of Independent Artists exhibition. The work consisted of a urinal, lying on its side atop a pedestal with the signature "R. Mutt". The urinal appeared neither original nor rare, Duchamp's "creativity" as an artist lies in the gesture of selecting the urinal as an art piece and displaying it in an artistic context. Duchamp also went so far as to use existing art in his work, appropriating an apparent copy of the ''Mona Lisa'' into his piece, ''L.H.O.O.Q''. Recent speculation regarding Duchamp's appropriated urinal claimed that the urinal was "non-standard" and "non-functional," and that Duchamp "allegedly custom-designed it along with his other supposed ''readymades''," however, this has never been substantiated.
The Dada movement (including Duchamp as an associate) continued with the appropriation of everyday objects, but their appropriation did not attempt to elevate the "low" to "high" art status, rather it produced art in which chance and randomness formed the basis of creation. Dada artists included Hugo Ball, Emmy Hennings, Jean Arp, Hans Richter, Richard Huelsenbeck, Andre Breton, Tristan Tzara, and Francis Picabia. A reaction to oppressive intellectual rigidity in both art and everyday society, Dada works featured deliberate irrationality and the rejection of the prevailing standards of art. Kurt Schwitters, who produced art at the same time as the Dadaists, shows a similar sense of the bizarre in his "merz" works. He constructed these from found objects, and they took the form of large constructions that later generations would call installations.
The Surrealists, coming after the Dada movement, also incorporated the use of "found" objects such as Méret Oppenheim's ''Object (Luncheon in Fur)'' (1936). These objects took on new meaning when combined with other unlikely and unsettling objects.
In the 1950s Robert Rauschenberg used what he dubbed "combines", literally combining readymade objects such as tires or beds, painting, silk-screens, collage, and photography. Similarly, Jasper Johns, working at the same time as Rauschenberg, incorporated found objects into his work. Johns also appropriated symbolic images such as the American flag or the "target" symbol into his work.
The Fluxus art movement also utilised appropriation: its members blended different artistic disciplines including visual art, music, and literature. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s they staged "action" events, engaged in politics and public speaking, and produced sculptural works featuring unconventional materials. The group even appropriated the postal system in developing mail art. The performances sought to elevate the banal by appropriating it as "art" and dissembling the high culture of serious music.
Along with artists such as Roy Lichtenstein and Claes Oldenburg, Andy Warhol appropriated images from commercial art and popular culture as well as the techniques of these industries. Often called "pop artists", they saw mass popular culture as the main vernacular culture, shared by all irrespective of education. These artists fully engaged with the ephemera produced from this mass-produced culture, embracing expendability and distancing themselves from the evidence of an artist's hand.
The term '''appropriation art''' came into common use in the 1980s with artists such as Sherrie Levine, who addressed the act of appropriating itself as a theme in art. Levine often quotes entire works into her own, for example photographing photographs of Walker Evans. Challenging ideas of originality, drawing attention to relations between power, gender and creativity, consumerism and commodity value, the social sources and uses of art, Levine plays with the theme of "almost same".
During the 1970s and 1980s Richard Prince re-photographed advertisements such as for Marlboro cigarettes or photo-journalism shots. Prince's work spoke to issues of materialism and the idea of spectacle over lived experience.
Appropriation artists may comment on more than just commercial or "low" culture. Joseph Kosuth appropriated images to engage with philosophy and epistemological theory. Other artists working during this time with appropriation included Jeff Koons, Barbara Kruger, and Malcolm Morley.
In the 1990s artists continued to produce appropriation art, using it as a medium to address theories and social issues, rather than focussing on the works themselves. Damian Loeb used film and cinema to comment on themes of simulacrum and reality. Other high-profile artists working at this time included Christian Marclay, Deborah Kass and Damien Hirst.
Artists working today continue to incorporate non-art elements and to quote from existing art. For example, Cory Arcangel incorporates aspects of cultural nostalgia through re-working vintage video games and computer software. Other contemporary appropriation artists include the Chapman brothers, Benjamin Edwards, Joy Garnett, Nikki S. Lee, Paul Pfeiffer, Pierre Huyghe and Rico Gatson.
Appropriation art and copyrights
The nature of appropriation art, the borrowing of elements for new work, brings up a number of contentious copyright issues. One debate addresses the extent to which appropriation art has sufficient originality. In the case of appropriation the appropriating artist copies the expressive form (as opposed to merely the idea) of the original work. A number of case-law examples have emerged that investigate the division between transformation of a work and simple derivation of a work.
'Andy Warhol' faced a series of law-suits from photographers whose work he appropriated and silk-screened. Patricia Caulfield, one such photographer, had taken a picture of flowers for a photography demonstration for a photography magazine. Warhol had covered the walls of Leo Castelli's New York gallery in 1964 with the silk-screened reproductions of Caulfield's photograph. After seeing a poster of his work in a bookstore, Caulfield claimed ownership of the image and while Warhol was the author of the successful silk screens, he settled out of court, giving Caulfield a royalty for future use of the image as well as two of the paintings.
'Jeff Koons' has also confronted issues of copyright due to his appropriation work (see ''Rogers v. Koons''). Photographer Art Rogers brought suit against Koons for copyright infringement in 1989. Koons work, ''String of Puppies'' sculpturally reproduced Rogers' black and white photograph that had appeared on an airport greeting card that Koons had bought. Though he claimed fair use and parody in his defense, Koons lost the case — partially due to the tremendous success he had as an artist. The parody argument also failed, as the appeals court drew a distinction between creating a parody of modern society in general and a parody directed at a specific work, finding parody of a specific work, especially of a very obscure one, too weak to justify the fair use of the original.
In October 2006, Koons won one for "fair use." For a seven-painting commission for the Deutsche Guggenheim Berlin, Koons drew on part of a photograph taken by 'Andrea Blanch' titled ''Silk Sandals by Gucci'' and published in the August 2000 issue of ''Allure'' magazine to illustrate an article on metallic makeup. Koons took the image of the legs and diamond sandals from that photo (omitting other background details) and used it in his painting ''Niagara'', which also includes three other pairs of women’s legs dangling surreally over a landscape of pies and cakes.
In his court filing, Koons' lawyer, 'John Koegel', said that ''Niagara'' is "an entirely new artistic work... that comments on and celebrates society's appetites and indulgences, as reflected in and encouraged by a ubiquitous barrage of advertising and promotional images of food, entertainment, fashion and beauty."
In his decision, 'Judge Louis L. Stanton' of U.S. District Court found that ''Niagara'' was indeed a "transformative use" of Blanch's photograph. "The painting's use does not 'supersede' or duplicate the objective of the original," the judge wrote, "but uses it as raw material in a novel way to create new information, new esthetics and new insights. Such use, whether successful or not artistically, is transformative."
The detail of Blanch's photograph used by Koons, it seems, is only marginally copyrightable. Blanch has no right to the appearance of the Gucci sandals, "perhaps the most striking element of the photograph," the judge wrote. And without the sandals, only a representation of a women's legs remains -- and that is "not sufficiently original to deserve much copyright protection."
Blanch is a 20-year veteran of the photo world; she started out as an assistant for Richard Avedon. (more information at [1]Artnet News, January 19, 2006)
In May 2006 Blanch filed an appeal and lost [2]; (read lengthy decision, 2nd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, Blanch v. Koons, 05-6433-cv, decided October 26, 2006).
In 2000, 'Damien Hirst's' sculpture ''Hymn'' (which Charles Saatchi had bought for a reported £1m) was exhibited in ''Ant Noises'' in the Saatchi Gallery. Hirst was sued for breach of copyright over this sculpture, which was a 20ft six ton enlargement of his son Connor's 14" ''Young Scientist Anatomy Set'' designed by Norman Emms, 10,000 of which are sold a year by Hull-based toy manufacturer Humbrol for £14.99 each. Hirst paid an undisclosed sum to two charities, Children Nationwide and the Toy Trust in an out-of-court settlement. The charitable donation was less than Emms had hoped for. Hirst sold three more copies of his sculpture for similar amounts to the first.
In the field of the Internet and videogames, Miltos Manetas appropriates imagery and animations to create his own works. Pieces such as JacksonPollock.org, Super Marios Sleeping, and Thank You Warhol are all created by appropriation. Ultimately, the artist borrowed the last name of the famous conceptual artist Joseph Kosuth and created a website that in the conceptual style of Joseph Kosuth declares: ''This is not Joseph Kosuth''
Appropriation artists
Artists who have appropriated, sampled or borrowed elements of pre-existing work for use in new work:
★ Cory Arcangel
★ Gordon Bennett
★ Mike Bidlo
★ Georges Braque
★ Glenn Brown
★ Jake and Dinos Chapman
★ Joseph Cornell
★ Mark Divo
★ Marcel Duchamp
★ Benjamin Edwards
★ Jodi
★ Eddy Gabriel
★ [3]
★ Rico Gatson
★ Joy Garnett
★ Leon Golub
★ Douglas Gordon
★ Hans Haacke
★ Damien Hirst
★ Pierre Huyghe
★ Jasper Johns
★ Karen Kilimnik
★ Jeff Koons
★ Joseph Kosuth
★ Barbara Kruger
★ Matthieu Laurette
★ Louise Lawler
★ Lennie Lee
★ Nikki s. lee
★ Sherrie Levine
★ Roy Lichtenstein
★ Damian Loeb
★ Robert Longo
★ Miltos Manetas
★ Christian Marclay
★ John McHale
★ Aleksandra Mir
★ Joan Miró
★ Yasumasa Morimura
★ Malcolm Morley
★ Vik Muniz
★ Claes Oldenburg
★ Meret Oppenheim
★ Pablo Picasso
★ Rick Prelinger
★ Richard Prince
★ Robert Rauschenberg
★ Gerhard Richter
★ Rob Scholte
★ David Salle
★ Peter Saville
★ Kurt Schwitters
★ Cindy Sherman
★ Elaine Sturtevant
★ Philip Taaffe
★ Kelley Walker
★ Andy Warhol
★ Thomas Gillett
See also
★ Art intervention
★ Found art
★ Classificatory disputes about art
★ Conceptual art
★ Collage
★ Fair use
★ Postmodern art
External links
★ Appropriation Art Coalition-Canada
★ Blanche v. Koons Decision (August 2005)
★ Koons Wins Landmark Copyright Lawsuit 1/2006
★ Blanch v. Koons, 05-6433-cv 2nd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals; decided October 26, 2006
★ Artist Koons' 'Transformative' Use of Photo Affirmed by 2nd Circuit Koons wins appeal (2006); article on Law.com
★ Koons Affirmed (Don't Blanch) Koons wins appeal (2006); article on The Patry Copyright blog
★ Fair Use
★ Fair Use Network
★ Creative Commons
★ Free Culture an international student movement
★ Comedies of Fair U$e
★ The New York Institute for the Humanities Comedies of Fair U$e conference (Archive.org)
★ Open Source Culture: Intellectual Property, Technology, and the Arts, Columbia Digital Media Center lecture series
★ Public Domain
★ Sherri Levine Interview
★ Duchamp
★ Lichtenstein
★ Warhol
★ Mona Lisa Parodies
★ Appropriation Art, History
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