(Redirected from Arabic Language)
'Arabic' (العربية '' or just عربي '') is the largest living member of the
Semitic language family in terms of speakers. Classified as
Central Semitic, it is closely related to
Hebrew and
Aramaic, and has its roots in a
Proto-Semitic common ancestor. Modern Arabic is classified as a
macrolanguage with 27
sub-languages in
ISO 639-3. These varieties are spoken throughout the
Arab world, and '
Standard Arabic' is widely studied and known throughout the
Islamic world.
Modern Standard Arabic derives from '
Classical Arabic', the only surviving member of the
Old North Arabian dialect group, attested
epigraphically since the 6th century, which has been a
literary language and the
liturgical language of
Islam since the
7th century.
Arabic has lent many words to other languages of the Islamic world, akin to the role
Latin has in most European languages. During the
Middle Ages Arabic was also a major vehicle of culture, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy, with the result that many European languages have also borrowed numerous words from it.
Literary and Modern Standard Arabic
Main articles: Standard Arabic
The term "Arabic" may refer with equal accuracy to either
literary Arabic ('') or the many localized
varieties of Arabic commonly called "colloquial Arabic". Arabs consider literary Arabic as the standard language and tend to view everything else as mere dialects. Literary Arabic (اللغة العربية الفصحى
translit: "the most eloquent Arabic language"), refers both to the language of present-day media across
North Africa and the
Middle East and to the language of the
Qur'an. (The expression ''media'' here includes most television and radio, and practically all written matter, including all books, newspapers, magazines, documents of every kind, and reading primers for small children.)
"Colloquial" or "dialectal" Arabic refers to the many national or regional varieties derived from Classical Arabic, spoken daily across
North Africa and the
Middle East, which constitute the everyday spoken language. These sometimes differ enough to be mutually incomprehensible. These dialects are not typically written, although a certain amount of literature (particularly plays and poetry) exists in many of them. They are often used to varying degrees in informal spoken media, such as
soap operas and
talk shows. Literary Arabic or classical Arabic is the official language of all Arab countries and is the only form of Arabic taught in schools at all stages.
The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of
diglossia–the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their local dialect and their school-taught literary Arabic (to an equal or lesser degree). This diglossic situation facilitates
code switching in which a speaker switches back and forth unaware between the two varieties of the language, sometimes even within the same sentence. In instances in which highly educated Arabs of different nationalities engage in conversation only to find their dialects mutually unintelligible (e.g. a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), both should be able to code switch into Literary Arabic for the sake of communication.
Like other languages, literary Arabic continues to evolve, and one can distinguish between
Classical Arabic (especially from the pre-Islamic to the Abbasid period, including Qur'anic Arabic) and
Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) as used today. Classical Arabic is considered normative; modern authors attempt (with varying degrees of success) to follow the syntactic and grammatical norms laid down by Classical grammarians (such as
Sibawayh), and to use the vocabulary defined in Classical dictionaries (such as the Lisan al-Arab.) However, the exigencies of modernity have led to the adoption of numerous terms which would have been mysterious to a Classical author, whether taken from other languages (eg فيلم ''film'') or coined from existing lexical resources (eg هاتف ''hātif'' "telephone" = "caller"). Structural influence from foreign languages or from the colloquials has also affected Modern Standard Arabic: for example, MSA texts sometimes use the format "A, B, C, and D" when listing things, whereas Classical Arabic prefers "A and B and C and D", and subject-initial sentences are significantly more common in MSA than in Classical Arabic. For these reasons, Modern Standard Arabic is generally treated separately in non-Arab sources.
Influence of Arabic on other languages
Main articles: Influence of Arabic on other languages
The influence of Arabic has been most profound in those countries dominated by Islam or Islamic power. Arabic is a major source of vocabulary for languages as diverse as
Berber,
Kurdish,
Persian,
Swahili,
Urdu,
Hindi (especially the spoken variety),
Bengali,
Turkish,
Malay and
Indonesian, as well as other languages in countries where these languages are spoken. For example the Arabic word for ''book'' /kita:b/ is used in all the languages listed, apart from Malay and Indonesian (where it specifically means "religious book"). In addition,
Spanish and
Portuguese both have large numbers of Arabic loan words. Other languages such as
Maltese[4] and
Kinubi derive from Arabic, rather than merely borrowing vocabulary or grammar rules.
The terms borrowed range from religious terminology (like Berber "prayer" <
salat), academic terms (like
Uyghur ''mentiq'' "logic"), economic items (like English "sugar") to
placeholders (like Spanish ''fulano'' "so and so") and everyday conjunctions (like Urdu ''lekin'' "but".) Most Berber varieties (such as
Kabyle), along with Swahili, borrow some numbers from Arabic. Most religious terms used by Muslims around the world are direct borrowings from Arabic, such as ''salat'' 'prayer' and ''imam'' 'prayer leader'. In languages not directly in contact with the Arab world, Arabic loanwords are often mediated by other languages rather than being transferred directly from Arabic; for example, most Arabic loanwords in Urdu entered through Persian, and many older Arabic loanwords in
Hausa were borrowed from
Kanuri.
In common with other European languages, many
English words are derived from Arabic, often through other European languages, especially
Spanish and
Italian. Among them are commonly-used words like "
sugar" (''sukkar''), "
cotton" ('') and "magazine" (''
''). English words more recognizably of Arabic origin include "
algebra", "
alcohol", "
alchemy", "
alkali" and "
zenith." Some words in common use, such as "intention" and "information", were originally
calques of Arabic philosophical terms. .
Arabic and Islam
Arabic is the language of
Qur'an. Traditionally,
Muslims deem it impossible to translate the Qur'an in a way that would reflect its exact meaning in a different language. Until recent times, some schools of thought maintained that it should not be translated at all. Arabic is often associated with
Islam, but it is also spoken by
Arab Christians,
Mizrahi Jews, Iraqi
Mandaeans, and Syrian
Druze.
In addition, a considerable amount of the world's
Muslims do not speak Arabic. Many of these non-Arabic speaking Muslims can read
Arabic script, with or without understanding, for purposes related to reading the
Qur'an. Non-Arab Muslims, such as Iranians and Pakistanis, can also read Arabic script because their respective languages,
Persian and
Urdu, use the same characters. Such an understanding is limited to
Quranic Arabic.
History
Modern Arabic is considered to be part of the Arabo-Canaanite sub-branch of the
central group of
West Semitic languages.
[ A History of the Arabic Language Brian Bishop ] While Arabic is not the oldest of the Semitic languages, it shares many features with the common ancestor for all Semitic languages in the Afro-Asiatic group of languages:
Proto-Semitic whose phonological, morphological, and syntactic features have been determined by linguists.
[ A History of the Arabic Language Brian Bishop ] Many linguists consider Arabic to be the most Semitic of any modern Semitic languages in terms of how completely it preserves the features of Proto-Semitic.
[ A History of the Arabic Language Brian Bishop ]
The earliest
Proto-Arabic, or
Ancient North Arabian, texts are the
Hasaean inscriptions of eastern Saudi Arabia, from the 8th century BC, written not in the modern Arabic alphabet, nor in its
Nabataean ancestor, but in variants of the
epigraphic South Arabian ''
musnad''. These are followed by 6th-century BC
Lihyanite texts from southeastern Saudi Arabia and the
Thamudic texts found throughout Arabia and the
Sinai, and not in reality connected with
Thamud. Later come the
Safaitic inscriptions beginning in the 1st century BC, and the many Arabic personal names attested in
Nabataean inscriptions (which are, however, written in Aramaic). From about the 2nd century BC, a few inscriptions from
Qaryat al-Faw (near
Sulayyil) reveal a dialect which is no longer considered "Proto-Arabic", but Pre-Classical Arabic.
By the fourth century AD, the Arab kingdoms of the
Lakhmids in southern
Iraq, the
Ghassanids in southern
Syria the
Kindite Kingdom emerged in Central Arabia. Their courts were responsible for some notable examples of pre-Islamic Arabic poetry, and for some of the few surviving
pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions in the Arabic alphabet.
Dialects and descendants
"Colloquial Arabic" is a collective term for the spoken varieties of Arabic used throughout the
Arab world, which, as mentioned, differ radically from the
literary language. The main dialectal division is between the
North African dialects and those of the Middle East, followed by that between sedentary dialects and the much more conservative
Bedouin dialects. Speakers of some of these dialects are unable to converse with speakers of another dialect of Arabic; in particular, while Middle Easterners can generally understand one another, they often have trouble understanding North Africans (although the converse is not true, due to the popularity of Middle Eastern—especially Egyptian—films and other media).
One factor in the differentiation of the dialects is influence from the languages previously spoken in the areas, which have typically provided a significant number of new words, and have sometimes also influenced pronunciation or word order; however, a much more significant factor for most dialects is, as among
Romance languages, retention (or change of meaning) of different classical forms. Thus Iraqi ''aku'', Levantine ''fīh'', and North African ''kayən'' all mean "there is", and all come from classical Arabic forms (''yakūn'', ''fīhi'', ''kā'in'' respectively), but now sound very different.
The major groups are:
★
Egyptian Arabic مصري : Spoken by about 76 million people in Egypt and perhaps the most widely understood variety, due to the popularity of Egyptian-made films and TV shows
★
Maghrebi Arabic مغربي (
Algerian Arabic,
Moroccan Arabic,
Tunisian Arabic,
Maltese and western
Libyan Arabic) The Moroccan and Algerian dialects are each spoken by about 20 million people.
★
Levantine Arabic شامي (Western
Syrian,
Lebanese,
Palestinian, western Jordanian and
Cypriot Maronite Arabic)
★
Iraqi Arabic عراقي (and
Khuzestani Arabic) - with significant differences between the more Arabian-like ''gilit''-dialects of the south and the more conservative ''qeltu''-dialects of the northern cities
★
East Arabian Arabic بحريني (Eastern Saudi Arabia, Western Iraq, Eastern Syrian , Jordanian and parts of Oman)
★
Gulf Arabic خليجي (Bahrain, Saudi Eastern Province, Kuwait, UAE, Qatar, and Oman)
Other varieties include:
★ حساني (in Mauritania and western Sahara)
★
Sudanese Arabic سوداني (with a
dialect continuum into Chad)
★
Hijazi Arabic حجازي (west coast of Saudi Arabia, Northern Saudi Arabia, eastern Jordan, Western Iraq)
★
Najdi Arabic نجدي (Najd region of central Saudi Arabia)
★
Yemeni Arabic يمني (Yemen to southern Saudi Arabia)
★
Andalusi Arabic أندلسي (Iberia until 17th century)
★
Siculo Arabic سقلي (Sicily, South Italy until 14th century)
★
Maltese, which is spoken on the Mediterranean island of
Malta, is the only one to have established itself as a fully separate language, with independent literary norms. Apart from its phonology, Maltese bears considerable similarity to urban varieties of
Tunisian Arabic, however in the course of history, the language has adopted numerous loanwords, phonetic and phonological features, and even some grammatical patterns, from
Italian,
Sicilian, and
English. It is also the only Semitic tongue written in the
Latin alphabet.
Sounds
Main articles: Arabic phonology
The phonemes below reflect the pronunciation of
Standard Arabic.
Vowels
Arabic has three vowels, with their long forms, plus two
diphthongs: ''a'' (open ''e'' as in English ''bed'', but
centralised), ''i'' , ''u'' ; ''ā'' , ''ī'' , ''ū'' ; ''ai'' (''ay'') , ''au'' (''aw'') .
Allophonically, after
velarized consonants (see following), the vowel ''a'' is pronounced , ''ā'' as (thus also after ''r''), ''ai'' as and ''au'' as .
Consonants
See
Arabic alphabet for explanations on the
IPA phonetic symbols found in this chart.
# is pronounced as by some speakers. This is especially characteristic of the Egyptian and southern Yemeni dialects. In many parts of North Africa and in the
Levant, it is pronounced as .
# is pronounced only in , the name of God, i.e.
Allah, when the word follows ''a'', ''ā'', ''u'' or ''ū'' (after ''i'' or ''ī'' it is unvelarised: ''bismi l-lāh'' ).
# is usually a phonetic
approximant.
# In many varieties, are actually
epiglottal (despite what is reported in many earlier works).
# is considered to be an uvular sound () by some linguists.
Arabic has consonants traditionally termed "emphatic" are both
velarized and
pharyngealised . This simultaneous velarization and pharyngealization is deemed "Retracted Tongue Root" by phonologists.
[5] In some transcription systems, emphasis is shown by capitalizing the letter e.g. is written ‹D›; in others the letter is underlined or has a dot below it e.g. ‹›.
Vowels and consonants can be (phonologically) short or long. Long (geminate) consonants are normally written doubled in Latin transcription (i.e. bb, dd, etc.), reflecting the presence of the Arabic diacritic mark shaddah, which marks lengthened consonants. Such consonants are held twice as long as short consonants. This consonant lengthening is phonemically contrastive: e.g. ''qabala'' "he received" and ''qabbala'' "he kissed".
Syllable structure
Arabic has two kinds of syllables: open syllables (CV) and (CVV) - and closed syllables (CVC), (CVVC) and (CVCC). Every syllable begins with a consonant - or else a consonant is borrowed from a previous word through elision – especially in the case of the definite article ''the'', ''
al-'' (used when starting an utterance) or ''_l'' (when following a word), e.g. ''baytu –l mudiir'' “house (of) the director”, which becomes ''bay-tul-mu-diir'' when divided syllabically. By itself, "the director" would be pronounced .
Stress
Although word stress is not phonemically contrastive in Standard Arabic, it does bear a strong relationship to vowel length, though phonemic, and syllable shape, and correct word stress aids intelligibility. The basic rules are:
★ Only the last three syllables may be stressed.
★ Given this restriction, the last "Superheavy" syllable (containing a long vowel or followed by two consonants for example) is stressed.
★ If there is no such syllable, the pre-final syllable is stressed if 'Heavy'. Otherwise, the first allowable syllable is stressed.
★ In Standard Arabic, a final long vowel may not be stressed. (This restriction does not apply to the spoken dialects, where original final long vowels have been shortened and secondary final long vowels have arisen.)
For example: ''ki-TAAB'' "book", ''KAA-tib'' "writer", ''MAK-tab'' "desk", ''ma-kaa-TIIB'' "desks", ''MAK-ta-ba'' "library", ''KA-ta-buu'' (MSA) "they wrote" = ''KA-ta-bu'' (dialect), ''ka-ta-BUU-hu'' (MSA) "they wrote it" = ''ka-ta-BUU'' (dialect), ''ka-TA-ba-taa'' (MSA) "they (dual, fem) wrote", ''ka-TAB-tu'' (MSA) "I wrote" = ''ka-TABT'' (dialect). Doubled consonants count as two consonants: ''ma-JAL-la'' "magazine", ''ma-HALL'' "palace".
Some dialects have different stress rules. In the Cairo (
Egyptian Arabic) dialect, for example, a heavy syllable may not carry stress more than two syllables from the end of a word, hence ''mad-RA-sa'' "school", ''qaa-HI-ra'' "Cairo". In the Arabic of
Sana, stress is often retracted: ''BAY-tayn'' "two houses", ''MAA-sat-hum'' "their table", ''ma-KAA-tiib'' "desks", ''ZAA-rat-hiin'' "sometimes", ''mad-RA-sat-hum'' "their school". (In this dialect, only syllables with long vowels or diphthongs are considered heavy; in a two-syllable word, the final syllable can be stressed only if the preceding syllable is light; and in longer words, the final syllable cannot be stressed.)
Dialectal variations
In some dialects, there may be more or fewer phonemes than those listed in the chart above. For example, non-Arabic is used in the Maghrebi dialects as well in the written language mostly for foreign names. Semitic became extremely early on in Arabic before it was written down; a few modern Arabic dialects, such as Iraqi (influenced by
Persian and
Turkish) distinguish between and .
Interdental fricatives ( and ) are rendered as stops and in some dialects (such as Levantine, Egyptian, and much of the Maghreb); some of these dialects render them as and in "learned" words from the Standard language. Early in the expansion of Arabic, the separate emphatic phonemes and coallesced into a single phoneme, becoming one or the other. Predictably, dialects without interdental fricatives use exclusively, while those with such fricatives use . Again, in "learned" words from the Standard language, is rendered as (in the Middle East) or (in North Africa) in dialects without interdental fricatives.
Another key distinguishing mark of Arabic dialects is how they render the original velar and uvular stops , (
Proto-Semitic /g/), and :
★ /q/ retains its original pronunciation in widely scattered regions such as Yemen, Morocco, and urban areas of the
Maghreb. But it is rendered as a voiced velar stop in Gulf Arabic, Iraqi Arabic, Upper Egypt, much of the Maghreb, and less urban parts of the Levant (e.g. Jordan); as a voiced uvular constrictive in Sudanese Arabic; and as a
glottal stop in several prestige dialects, such as those spoken in Cairo, Beirut and Damascus. Some traditionally Christian villages in rural areas of the Levant render the sound as , as do Shia Bahrainis. In some Gulf dialects, it is palatalized to or . Many dialects with a modified pronunciation for /q/ maintain the /q/ pronunciation in certain words (often with religious or educational overtones) borrowed from the Classical language.
★ retains its pronunciation in Iraq and much of the Arabian peninsula, but is pronounced /g/ in Cairo and parts of Yemen, in Morocco and the Levant, and /j/ in some words in much of Gulf Arabic.
★ usually retains its original pronunciation, but is palatalized to in many words in Iraq and much of the Arabian peninsula. Often a distinction is made between the suffixes /-ak/ (you, masc.) and /-ik/ (you, fem.), which become and , respectively. In
Sana Arabic, /-ik/ is pronounced .
Grammar
Nouns in Literary Arabic have three grammatical
cases (
nominative,
accusative, and
genitive (also used when the noun is governed by a preposition); three
numbers (singular, dual and plural); two
genders (masculine and feminine); and three "states" (indefinite, definite, and
construct). The cases of singular nouns (other than those that end in long ā) are indicated by
suffixed short vowels (/-u/ for nominative, /-a/ for accusative, /-i/ for genitive). The feminine singular is often marked by /-at/, which is reduced to /-ah/ or /-a/ before a pause. Plural is indicated either through endings (the
sound plural) or internal modification (the
broken plural). Definite nouns include all proper nouns, all nouns in "construct state" and all nouns which are
prefixed by the definite article /al-/. Indefinite singular nouns (other than those that end in long ā) add a final /-n/ to the case-marking vowels, giving /-un/, /-an/ or /-in/ (which is also referred to as
nunation).
Verbs in Literary Arabic are marked for person (first, second, or third), gender, and number. They are
conjugated in two major paradigms (termed
perfective and
imperfective, or
past and
non-past); two
voices (active and passive); and five
moods in the imperfective (
indicative,
imperative,
subjunctive,
jussive and
energetic). There are also two
participles (active and passive) and a
verbal noun, but no
infinitive. As indicated by the differing terms for the two tense systems, there is some disagreement over whether the distinction between the two systems should be most accurately characterized as
tense,
aspect or a combination of the two. The
perfective aspect is constructed using fused suffixes that combine person, number and gender in a single morpheme, while the
imperfective aspect is constructed using a combination of
prefixes (primarily encoding person) and
suffixes (primarily encoding gender and number). The moods other than imperative are primarily marked by suffixes (/u/ for indicative, /a/ for subjunctive, no ending for jussive, /an/ for energetic). The imperative has the endings of the jussive but lacks any prefixes. The passive is marked through internal vowel changes. Plural forms for the verb are only used when the noun is not mentioned, and the feminine singular is used for all non-human plurals.
Adjectives in Literary Arabic are marked for case, number, gender and state, as for nouns. However, the plural of all non-human nouns is always followed by a singular feminine adjective, which takes the /-ah/ suffix.
Pronouns in Literary Arabic are marked for person, number and gender. There are two varieties, independent pronouns and
enclitics. Enclitic pronouns are attached to the end of a verb, noun or preposition and indicate verbal and prepositional objects or possession of nouns. The first-person singular pronoun has a different enclitic form used for verbs (/-ni/) and for nouns or prepositions (/-ī/ after consonants, /-ya/ after vowels).
Nouns, verbs, pronouns and adjectives agree with each other in all respects. However, non-human plural nouns are grammatically considered to be feminine singular. Furthermore, a verb in a verb-initial sentence is marked as singular regardless of its semantic number when the subject of the verb is explicitly mentioned as a noun. Numerals between three and ten show "chiasmic" agreement, in that grammatically masculine numerals have feminine marking and vice-versa.
The spoken dialects have lost the case distinctions and make only limited use of the dual (it occurs only on nouns and its use is no longer required in all circumstances). They have lost the mood distinctions other than imperative, but many have since gained new moods through the use of prefixes (most often /bi-/ for indicative vs. unmarked subjunctive). They have also mostly lost the indefinite "nunation" and the internal passive. Modern Standard Arabic maintains the grammatical distinctions of Literary Arabic except that the energetic mood is almost never used; in addition, Modern Standard Arabic sometimes drop the final short vowels that indicate case and mood.
As in many other Semitic languages, Arabic verb formation is based on a (usually)
triconsonantal root, which is not a word in itself but contains the semantic core. The consonants '', for example, indicate 'write', '' indicate 'read', '' indicate 'eat', etc. Words are formed by supplying the root with a vowel structure and with affixes. (Traditionally, Arabic grammarians have used the root '' 'do' as a template to discuss word formation.) From any particular root, up to ten different verbs can be formed, each with its own template; these are referred to as "form I", "form II", ... up through "form X". These forms, and their associated participles and verbal nouns, are the primary means of forming vocabulary in Arabic.
Writing system
The Arabic alphabet derives from the
Aramaic script (through
Syriac and then
Nabatean), to which it bears a loose resemblance like that of
Coptic or
Cyrillic script to
Greek script. Traditionally, there were several differences between the Western (North African) and Middle Eastern version of the alphabet—in particular, the ''fa'' and ''qaf'' had a dot underneath and a single dot above respectively in the
Maghreb, and the order of the letters was slightly different (at least when they were used as numerals). However, the old Maghrebi variant has been abandoned except for calligraphic purposes in the Maghreb itself, and remains in use mainly in the Quranic schools (
zaouias) of West Africa. Arabic, like all other
Semitic languages (except for the
Latin-written Maltese, and the languages with the
Ge'ez script), is written from right to left.
Calligraphy
Main articles: Arabic calligraphy
After the definitive fixing of the Arabic script around
786, by
Khalil ibn Ahmad al Farahidi, many styles were developed, both for the writing down of the Qur'an and other books, and for inscriptions on monuments as decoration.
Arabic calligraphy has not fallen out of use as calligraphy has in the Western world, and is still considered by Arabs as a major art form; calligraphers are held in great esteem. Being cursive by nature, unlike the
Latin alphabet, Arabic script is used to write down a
verse of the Qur'an, a
Hadith, or simply a
proverb, in a spectacular composition. The composition is often abstract, but sometimes the writing is shaped into an actual form such as that of an animal. Two of the current masters of the genre are
Hassan Massoudy and
Khaled Al Saa’i.
Transliteration
There are a number of different standards of
Arabic transliteration: methods of accurately and efficiently representing Arabic with the
Latin alphabet. The more scientific standards allow the reader to recreate the exact word using the
Arabic alphabet. However, these systems are heavily reliant on
diacritical marks such as "š" for the English ''sh'' sound. At first sight, this may be difficult to recognize. Less scientific systems often use
digraphs (like ''sh'' and ''kh''), which are usually more simple to read, but sacrifice the definiteness of the scientific systems. In some cases, the ''sh'' or ''kh'' sounds can be represented by italicizing or underlining them -- that way, they can be distinguished from separate ''s'' and ''h'' sounds or ''k'' and ''h'' sounds, respectively. (Compare ''gashouse'' to ''gash''.)
The system used by the US military,
Standard Arabic Technical Transliteration System or SATTS, solves some of these issues, as well as the need for special characters by representing each Arabic letter with a unique symbol in the ASCII range to provide a one-to-one mapping from Arabic to ASCII and back. This system, while facilitating typing on English keyboards, presents its own ambiguities and disadvantages.
During the last few decades and especially since the 1990s, Western-invented text communication technologies have become prevalent in the
Arab world, such as
personal computers, the
World Wide Web,
email,
Bulletin board systems,
IRC,
instant messaging and
mobile phone text messaging. Most of these technologies originally had the ability to communicate using the
Latin alphabet only, and some of them still do not have the
Arabic alphabet as an optional feature. As a result, Arabic speaking users communicated in these technologies by transliterating the Arabic text using the Latin script, sometime known as
IM Arabic.
To handle those Arabic letters that cannot be accurately represented using the Latin script, numerals and other characters were appropriated. For example, the numeral "3" may be used to represent the Arabic letter "ع", ''ayn''. There is no universal name for this type of transliteration, but some have named it
Arabic Chat Alphabet. Other systems of transliteration exist, such as using dots or capitalization to represent the "emphatic" counterparts of certain consonants. For instance, using capitalization, the letter "د", or ''daal'', may be represented by 'd'. Its emphatic counterpart, "ض", may be written as 'D'.
Language-standards regulators
Academy of the Arabic Language is the name of a number of language-regulation bodies formed in Arab countries. The most active are in
Damascus and
Cairo. They review language development, monitor new words and approve inclusion of new words into their published standard dictionaries. They also publish old and historical Arabic manuscripts.
Studying Arabic language
Arabic language interests millions of non-Arabic speakers to learn it to different levels, mainly because it is the language of their holy book, the
Quran, and all
Islamic terms are Arabic. Arabic has been taught in many
elementary and
secondary schools especially in Muslim schools worldwide. Many universities in the world today have classes for studying
Arabic as a Foreign Language, as part of their
foreign languages,
Middle Eastern studies,
religious studies,
area studies departments, and even standalone
Arabic language departments. Many
Arabic language schools exist today to assist in gaining Arabic language skills oustide
academic education. Most of the Arabic
language schools are located in the
Arab world and some
Muslim world countries. Software and books with tapes are also important part of Arabic learning, as many of Arabic learners may live in places where there is no academic or
Arabic language school classes available. Radio series of Arabic language classes are also provided from some radio stations . A number of websites on the
Internet provide online classes for all levels as a distance education means.
References
★ Edward William Lane, ''
Arabic English Lexicon'', 1893, 2003 reprint: ISBN 81-206-0107-6, 3064 pages (
online edition).
★ R. Traini, ''Vocabolario di arabo'', I.P.O., Rome
★ Hans Wehr, ''
Arabisches Wörterbuch für die Schriftsprache der Gegenwart: Arabisch-Deutsch'', Harassowitz, 1952, 1985 reprint: ISBN 3-447-01998-0, 1452 pages; English translation: Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic, Harassowitz, 1961.
Phonology
★
Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, , Robin, Thelwall, Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-521-63751-1
Grammar
★ Kees Versteegh, ''The Arabic Language'', Edinburgh University Press (1997). See online versions:
[2] [3] [4] [5]
★ Mumisa, Michael, ''Introducing Arabic'', Goodword Books (2003).
★ Haywood and Nahmad, ''A new Arabic grammar'': London 1965, ISBN 0 85331 585 X
★ Laura Veccia Vaglieri, ''Grammatica teorico-pratica della lingua araba'', I.P.O., Rome.
Dialectology
★
George Grigore, (2007). ''L'arabe parlé à Mardin. Monographie d'un parler arabe périphérique''. Bucharest: Editura Universitatii din Bucuresti, ISBN (13) 978-973-737-249-9
[6]
Notes
1. Three lists, Ethnologue, Encarta, Languages Spoken by More Than 10 Million People
2. Languages Spoken by More Than 10 Million People
3. http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm
4. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9050379/Maltese-language
5. Thelwall, 52
See also
★
Varieties of Arabic
★
Iʿrāb
★
Arabic literature
★
Arabic alphabet
★
Arabic calligraphy
★
List of Islamic terms in Arabic
★
List of Arabic loanwords in English
★
List of replaced loanwords in Turkish
★
List of French words of Arabic origin
★
List of Portuguese words of Arabic origin
★
Arabic influence on Spanish
★
List of common phrases in various languages
★
Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic
★
Arabist
External links
General
::::''For links related to script, see
Arabic alphabet''
★
Classical Arabic Blog
★
"The Development of Classical Arabic" by Kees Versteegh
★
Arabic language pronunciation applet with audio samples
Online Arabic Lexicons
★
Free Online Arabic Lexicon
Online Courses
★
Free Comprehensive Arabic Language Course: MadinahArabic.com
★
Downloadable Arabic lessons for all levels: ArabicPod.net
★
Public Domain Arabic Language Courses
Online Arabic keyboards
★
Online Arabic keyboard
★
Arabic Keyboard based on QWERTY(ISLAM-91)
★
Muftah-Alhuruf.com: Write and send Arabic emails without having an Arabic keyboard or operating system.
Dictionaries
★
Free, open source English-Arabic wordlist/dictionary project by
Arabeyes
★
Commercial English-Arabic online translation service
★
Arabic dictionaries
★
Collection of Arabic bilingual dictionaries
★
"A E D Arabic Etymological Dictionary" by Andras Rajki
العربية
中国
Français
Deutsch
Ελληνική
हिन्दी
Italiano
日本語
Português
Русский
Español
