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EspañolARCHAEOLOGY AND THE BOOK OF MORMON
Both Latter Day Saint and non-Latter Day Saint scholars have long attempted to use 'archaeology' to support their respective views of the origins of the '''Book of Mormon'''. The ''Book of Mormon'' is considered an inspired sacred text by the denominations within the Latter Day Saint movement, and Latter Day Saint scholars accept the view that the people described in the ''Book of Mormon'' lived somewhere on either North or South America.[1] Most Latter Day Saints have traditionally viewed the book as historical, but recognize that the purpose of the book was not to document the history of the people described within it.[2] Although scholars note that geographical and historical information is scattered throughout the record, authorities of the LDS Church emphasize that the Book of Mormon is primarily a religious record.[3]
Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believe that ancient Israelites traveled to the Americas. Early in Church History many church members believed that the three groups mentioned in the Book of Mormon exclusively populated in a short time an empty North and South American Continent.[2] This view today is only held by a few, many readers of the Book of Mormon assume the land was already populated by other people; although readers believe strongly that these groups had profound impacts on the culture and lifestyles of people in the Americas
LDS scholars, however, have long taken a more critical view regarding the assumption that no other people were present in the New World at the time of Lehi's arrival.
★ In 1927, Janne Sjodahl stated that "students of the Book of Mormon should be cautioned against the error of supposing that all the American Indians are the descendants of Lehi, Mulek and their companions."[5]
★ In 1938 a church study guide for the Book of Mormon stated that "the Book of Mormon deals only with the history and expansion of three small colonies which came to America, and it does not deny or disprove the possibility of other immigrations, which probably would be unknown to its writers."[6]
★ From 1952 onward, LDS scholar Hugh Nibley repeatedly argued that the assumption that there were no other people present in the New World at the time of Lehi's arrival might be incorrect.
★ In 1980 Nibley, referring to archaeological evidence, stated that the assumption of an empty New World represented a "simplistic reading" of the Book of Mormon.[7] By the middle of the twentieth century, most LDS authors held the belief that the Book of Mormon events took place within a limited region in Mesoamerica, and that others were present on the continent at the time of Lehi's arrival.[2]
★ This geographical and population model was formally published in the official church magazine, ''The Ensign'', in September 1984,[2] and was followed by a book on the subject by LDS anthropologist John L. Sorenson in 1985.[2]
LDS artists have had an influence on popular perceptions of what exactly the Book of Mormon portrays. Some editions of the Book of Mormon include a series of paintings by LDS artist Arnold Frieburg which are intended to illustrate specific events portrayed in the narrative.[11] Nephites are depicted as muscular individuals who dress in Roman style armor and carry large, traditional steel swords. In a scene depicting Mormon and Moroni observing the final battle, Moroni is portrayed wearing a metal helmet with large horns and a crest. In a different scene, Captain Moroni is portrayed wearing a crested helmet and metal breastplate, and is surrounded by warriors who are raising long metal swords. In a portrayal of Helaman leading his two thousand warriors, Helaman is shown astride a large horse, which is itself wearing a crested helmet. Horses, however, are never actually described as having been ridden or used in battle in the Book of Mormon.
Many faithful Latter Day Saints have attempted to analyze the text of the ''Book of Mormon'' and use it as a guide to locate archaeological sites. Some of these early attempts, although sincere in intent, have led to further confusion on the issue as the result of questionable scholarship. Some have based their conclusions on archaeological data that is considered to be fradulent.[12] In recent years, this has caused LDS scholars to take a very critical approach to the work of other LDS researchers on the subject. John Sorenson states that "LDS scholars themselves have attacked the same shoddy scholarship that makes Book of Mormon archaeology a playground for hobbyists."[2]
Several candidates considered likely by LDS researchers have been proposed for the Middle Eastern sites mentioned in the ''Book of Mormon''. However, fewer distinct landmarks are given in the ''Book of Mormon'' for sites in the Americas, making study in the Western Hemisphere more difficult. Because of confusion brought about by early attempts to establish a New World archaeology, most Mormon scholars now take a different approach: analyze archaeological findings for parallels and correlations with information found in the ''Book of Mormon''. Although LDS scholars have found no indisputable proof of the book's historicity, they have accumulated a large amount of what they believe is supporting and circumstantial evidence.
In addition to the search for supporting physical evidence, there is a growing body of work from LDS scholars such as John L. Sorenson that attempts to apply a "flesh-and-blood" reality to the cultures in the Book of Mormon. This approach uses what the authors refer to as "contextual knowledge" in order to establish a plausible setting for the cultural events of the Book of Mormon within the context of known Mesoamerican historical settings. The goal is to determine places and times at which Book of Mormon events occurred that correlate with similar events in the Mesoamerican historical record.[2]
From the mid-1950s onwards, the Church-owned Brigham Young University has sponsored (under the banner of the ''New World Archaeological Foundation'', or NWAF) a large number of archaeological excavations in Mesoamerica, with a focus on the Mesoamerican time period known as the Preclassic (earlier than ''c.'' AD 200).[15] The results of these and other investigations, while producing valuable archaeological data, have not led to any widespread acceptance by non-LDS archaeologists of the Book of Mormon account.[16] They have, however, led to increased respect for LDS archaeological efforts in the field.[17]
Main articles: Genetics and the Book of Mormon
The Book of Mormon tells of the people of Jared, consisting of several families from the Tower of Babel, who migrated to America from the Old World before Abraham's time; a group including Lehi's family who migrated to America from Jerusalem around 600 B.C.; and another group (the people of Mulek) who migrated to America from Jerusalem about 8 years later. The Book of Mormon makes no overt assertions regarding the migration or non-migration of other groups to America, though an introductory paragraph added to the book starting with the 1981 edition identified the Lamanites as the "principal ancestors of the American Indians."[18]
Many people have examined existing genetic data in order to determine its relationship to the people described in the Book of Mormon. Several studies have been performed in which DNA from modern indigenous Americans has been examined in an attempt to determine Native American origins. Several authors have published works that suggest that current studies of genetic anthropology using DNA evidence do not provide support for the Book of Mormon.[19][2] Other researchers warn against using genetics to attempt to prove or disprove the historicity of the Book of Mormon, citing a lack of source genes and the improbability of tracing Israelite DNA even if it was present.[21][22]
Webster's Dictionary defines "apologetics" as a "systematic argumentative discourse in defense" of a position. Many believing Book of Mormon researchers have in the late twentieth century shifted their focus from "apologetics" to "studies." This has generally resulted in better scholarship among believers as researchers have focused more on real answers than on talking points, though ironically this shift of focus has provided better material for apologists. In fact, a recent evangelical publication lamented the lack of serious scholarship responding to the "sophistication and erudition" of LDS apologetic scholarship.[23] For Book of Mormon researchers "archaeology and ''The Book of Mormon''" is no longer driven solely by the apologist/skeptic debate, but by a serious research interest in the Book of Mormon itself.
The following are some of the specific reasons most Mormon apologists do not place much emphasis on apologetics through archaeology:
# The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints officially discourages conversion through the intellect in favor of conversion through faith and personal revelation.
# Though some consensuses are being formed, Book of Mormon studies are still in their youth.
# Both casual LDS and non-LDS researchers tend to make errors of assumption because
#
★ Most modern archaeological research of the Mesoamerican area dates to a time after the Book of Mormon narrative ends. The people the Book of Mormon narrative primarily concerns (the Nephites) purportedly disperse and their language, religion, and culture eventually deteriorate.
#
★ Some interpretations of the text of The Book of Mormon suggest there may have been other people and cultures in the same lands at the same time (though the book concerns itself primarily with peoples of Old World ancestry), possibly large populations and many different cultures[2].
#
★ The Book of Mormon narrative says that the Lamanites hunted down and destroyed the surviving Nephites and conceivably most evidence of the Nephite civilization and culture.
#There are no geographic landmarks discussed in relation to other landmarks in Book of Mormon after the time of Christ that can be substantially identified, either by description or by their relation to other sites. Those prior to the "great upheavals" that took place in the Book of Mormon at the death of Jesus, do not contain enough detail to allow identification.
A great deal of data have been accumulated over more than two hundred years of American archaeological research. While the completeness of this research suffers in comparison with Old World archaeology, substantial insights into pre-Columbian civilizations, technologies, movements, and history have been established. These include the Formative Mesoamerican civilizations such as the (Pre-Classic) Maya, Olmec and Zapotec, which flourished during the approximate period the events related in the Book of Mormon are said to have occurred.
The ''Book of Mormon'' describes three heavily populated, semi-literate, technologically advanced[25] civilizations. The record primarily deals with the Nephites and the Lamanites, who existed in the Americas from about 600 BC to AD 400. It also deals with the rise and fall of the Jaredite nation, which existed in the Americas starting at the time of the Tower of Babel (which many Biblical literalist scholars date to between 3100 BC and 2200 BC) until as late as 400 BC.
Some argue that the data and artifacts from these peoples do not appear to be related to the description of ancient civilizations given in the Book of Mormon.[26] Others see a variety of evidence which they feel corroborates the Book of Mormon account. Regardless, the archaeology of North and South America is still considered by many to be a developing field of study.[27]
While the book does not explicitly state whether these three civilizations were the sole inhabitants of the ancient Americas, most LDS scholars have interpreted certain parts of the text as being indicative of the presence of and interactions with other groups of people whose origins are not stated.[2] Though no complete population counts are given in the book, there are indications given of the number of people present in the Nephite civilization at various points in time. Four centuries after the arrival of Lehi's party, Zeniff's small Nephite colony is attacked by the Lamanites in a battle in which three thousand forty-three Lamanites are said to have died (). In 87 B.C., a battle is said to have claimed the lives of over nineteen thousand Nephites and Lamanites. At one point in the history portrayed, some Mormon scholars estimate that the population described in Book of Mormon civilization(s) ranged between 300,000 and 1.5 million people.[2] For example, the Book of Mormon asserts specifically that in just one battle near the hill Cumorah about one hundred and thirty thousand soldiers were killed on one side alone. By 385 A.D., the number of Nephite soldiers killed is estimated to be close to a quarter million people.[2] The Jaredite civilization was likely much larger: the final war that destroyed the Jaredite civilization killed at least two million soldiers ().
The Book of Mormon states that there were pre-Columbian peoples that were white, literate, had knowledge of Old World languages, and possessed Old World derived writing systems. (E.g. 1 Nephi et. seq.) They smelted metal and made tools and weapons of iron, steel, and brass. (E.g. Ether , ) They owned domesticated horses and cattle. They possessed chariots. (E.g. Alma ) The people covered the "entire land." The civilization described by these passages and scores of others in the ''Book of Mormon'' should yield certain types of discoveries in the pre-Colombian archaeological record.[2] The lack of evidence of the Book of Mormon civilizations is seen by some as being problematic for the Book of Mormon. LDS scholars answer that there is a growing body of evidence of the book's authenticity. These evidences, however, are not accepted by mainstream archaeologists. [32]
Based upon Book of Mormon population estimates, the civilizations described would be roughly the size of a few other archaeologically prominent civilizations—Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome and Maya—which also thrived at about the same time as putative Book of Mormon civilizations. These civilizations left numerous artifacts in the form of ruins, tombs, temples, pyramids, roads, arches, walls, frescos, statues, vases, coins, etc. Skeptics argue that if large-scale and long-lived civilizations such as those mentioned in the Book of Mormon had existed in the New World, then solid physical evidence of their remains should appear in the archaeological record of the Americas. Mormon scholars reply that evidence of these civilizations has indeed been found, and that it is simply not accepted as such by the mainstream archaeological community. LDS researchers point to settlement patterns that appear to correlate with those indicated in the Book of Mormon in both location and date. [2]
There are no groups involved in primary research on Book of Mormon archaeology outside of the Mormon academic community. No archaeological finding, as yet, has been accepted by the non-Mormon archaeological community as indisputable evidence that the book has a historical connection to Native Americans.
The New World portion of the geographical record of the Book of Mormon does not easily conform to many of the settings proposed by various LDS researchers. LDS scholars have found the most plausible match to be the Mesoamerican Tehuantapec setting. Non-LDS researchers suggest that there are few, if any, definitive indicators within the text itself to consistently place it within any real-world setting proposed to date.[2]
Similar to Old World archaeology, the archaeological record of the Americas is incomplete and faces many challenges. Of the thousands of pre-Columbian archaeological sites presently known across the continent, only a small number have been documented in exhaustive detail. In addition, some archaeological sites have been compromised and even destroyed outright by ongoing natural processes and the encroachment of urbanization and agricultural land-use. A good example of this trend is the Early and Preclassic Mayan archaeological site of Kaminaljuyu. Of the hundreds of temple mounds that once existed there, most have been destroyed by the expansion of Guatemala City.[2]
Much of North American archaeology has been lost or misunderstood because of common misperceptions, stereotypes, and lack of preservation. For example, many are not aware of the existence of stone and mortar Maya cities in Mexico, structured stone and clay mortar pueblos of the Ancient Pueblo Peoples of the Southwest, or complex centers of flat-topped pyramidal platform mounds of the Mississippian culture in the Eastern United States.[36] Despite the existence of these complex cultures in North America, many indiscriminately identify the majority of Native Americans as migratory (hunters/gatherers and teepee or wigwam dwellers).
Both LDS and non-LDS scholars compare the state of Book of Mormon archaeology with Biblical archaeology, with both groups acknowledging that the number of locatable places in the Book of Mormon pales when compared to the number found in the Bible. The advantage that Biblical archaeology has is that the geographical setting for the Bible is already known. LDS scholars point out that one challenge for establishing Book of Mormon archaeology in the New World is that ancient location names in the proposed Mesoamerican setting have not carried over to the present day and are therefore difficult to verify.[37]
Similar to frequent and massive losses of ancient writings in the Old World (in deliberate or accidental fires, in wars, earthquakes, floods, etc), much of the literature of the Pre-Columbian Maya was also destroyed by the Spanish when they conquered the region in the 1500s.[38] On this point, Michael Coe noted:
:'' "Nonetheless, our knowledge of ancient Maya thought must represent only a tiny fraction of the whole picture, for of the thousands of books in which the full extent of their learning and ritual was recorded, only four have survived to modern times (as though all that posterity knew of ourselves were to be based upon three prayer books and ''Pilgrim's Progress'').''"[2]
However, in addition to the four surviving pre-Columbian Maya codices mentioned by Coe, there are also a number of documents dating from the 16th century conquest and shortly after, in which indigenous scribes or Spanish interlocutors recorded facets of Maya (and other) historical accounts and beliefs.
The Maya civilization also left behind a vast corpus of inscriptions (upwards of ten thousand are known[40]) written in the Maya script, the earliest of which date from around the 3rd century BC with the majority written in the Classic Period (c. 250 - 900 AD).[41] Mayanist scholarship is now able to decipher a large number of these inscriptions. These inscriptions are mainly concerned with the activities of Mayan rulers and the commemoration of significant events, with the oldest known Long Count date corresponding to December 7, 36 B.C. being recorded on Chiapa de Corzo ''Stela 2'' in central Chiapas. [2] It has been claimed that none of these inscriptions make contact with events, places, rulers or timeline of Book of Mormon.[43]
Some LDS researchers use as supporting evidence ancient Mesoamerican accounts that appear to parallel events recorded in the Book of Mormon. [44]
As the state of archaeological knowledge of the Americas progresses, many interested scholars, both LDS and non-LDS, are evaluating each archaeological discovery for its probative value regarding the authenticity of the Book of Mormon, comparing the text of the book (animals, objects, place names, directions, etc.) with the archaeological record to see if they fit.
Joseph Smith never specifically stated where the events depicted in the Book of Mormon took place, and the Book of Mormon itself states that less than "a hundredth part of the proceedings of this people" are included in the record ().
Smith's early statements indicated that he believed that the events described in the Book of Mormon took place on the North American continent. In a 1833 letter to N.C. Saxton, Smith wrote:
:''"The Book of Mormon is a record of the forefathers of our western tribes of Indians; having been found through the ministration of an holy angel, and translated into our own language by the gift and power [of] God, after having been hid up in the earth for the last fourteen hundred years, containing the word of God which was delivered unto them. By it we learn that our western tribes of Indians are descendants from that of Joseph that was sold into Egypt, and that the land [of] America is a promised land unto them, and unto it, all the tribes of Israel will come, with as many of the Gentiles as shall comply with the requisitions of the new covenant. But the tribe of Judah will return to old Jerusalem."''[45]
On June 4, 1834, during the Zion's Camp trek through Illinois, Smith stated that the group was "roving over the mounds of that once beloved people of the Lord, picking up their skulls & their bones."[46]
Smith later stated that he believed that the discovery of ancient Maya ruins on the Yucatán Peninsula in the late 1830s offered evidence to the Book of Mormon's authenticity. After reading about the accounts, Smith proclaimed the ruins were likely Nephite.[47] The first history of the Church was written in 1834 and 1835 by Oliver Cowdery, as a series of articles published serially in the Church's Messenger and Advocate. In this history, Cowdery stated that the final battle between the Nephites and the Lamanites occurred at the "Hill Cumorah" (not to be confused with the Hill Cumorah in New York, which was named significantly later than the hill referred to in the Book of Mormon). He also identified the Jaredites' final battle as occurring in the same area as the Nephite/Lamanite final battle. Since Smith was an editor of the Messenger and Advocate and likely approved the history, some believe it can be argued that this was his belief as well. In any case, evidence appears to show that Smith clearly did not know where the events took place.[48]
As with Bible studies, considerable effort in Book of Mormon studies has been focused on establishing a credible real world setting for the narrative. ''The Book of Mormon'' narrative begins at Jerusalem and follows a straightforward route along the Gulf of Suez, then across the Arabian Peninsula eastward, then apparently across the Pacific Ocean to the New World. Joseph Smith said he acquired the Book of Mormon in the state of New York. Between these two bookends, the setting for the main Book of Mormon narrative (and the sub-narrative of the Jaredites as told in the Book of Ether) is not obvious. There are two major divisions of Book of Mormon archaeology: The Old World and the New World.
The Old World narrative portion has proven much more fruitful for Mormon scholars where there are only two separate, but overlapping theories on the sites described in Lehi's journey to the Ocean, and the identification of locations, such as Nahom, that most Mormon scholars consider to be a confirmed location. [49]
Recent trends in ''Book of Mormon'' archaeology have focused on the Arabian peninsula in the Middle East as the early accounts in the ''Book of Mormon'' do describe actual locations. Many Mormon researchers are confident that evidence found in Yemen and Oman correlates with the account of Lehi's family's journey southward from Jerusalem to a place on the Arabian peninsula called "Bountiful" by Lehi, where they built ships to come to the Americas.
Another Old World connection to the Book of Mormon occurred in 1997 when an ancient Judean stamp seal was identified as bearing the Hebrew form of the name "Malchiah son of Hammelech" .[50] It is argued that this ancient Judean stamp seal belongs to Mulek, a man who is mentioned in the Bible and briefly identified in the Book of Mormon as the only surviving son of Zedekiah, king of Judah.[51]
The Book of Mormon describes a 600 B.C. journey of two families from Jerusalem along the east side of the Red Sea, then east across the Arabian Peninsula from 600 B.C. to 592 B.C. The details and locations encountered on this journey are very clearly described in the text.[52] Through most of the twentieth century, no information was available to confirm the narrative of an encampment at a continually running stream (River of Laman) in a valley (of Lemuel) at the "fount of the Red Sea," of a burial at a place "called Nahom," of a "Bountiful" place on the east side of the Arabian Peninsula where multiple narrative details occur, or of any other detail of Lehi's Arabian journey. In the late twentieth and the early twenty-first centuries, LDS researchers have located plausible candidates for each of these places that they believe correlate with the route of Lehi's journey. Field studies and research on these and other locations related to this subject are ongoing.
Based on extensive text analysis and field work in Arabia, a number of LDS researchers have concluded that plausible locations exist for every important Arabian site mentioned along the route of Lehi's journey. These include, the 'borders near and nearer' the Red Sea, Shazer (where they stopped to hunt), the most fertile parts, the trees from which Nephi made his bow, Nahom, Nephi’s eastwardly trail to Bountiful, and Bountiful.
Some Mormon scholars believe that Lehi and his family interacted with locals during their travels, with some even suggesting that Lehi's group might have been in bondage to others in the area for a period of time.[53]
Some speculate that Khirbet Beit Lei ("Ruin of the House of Lei") may have been a place where Lehi lived. In the area, there is a cave with ancient Hebrew writing that can be dated to the 6th Century B.C., and local legend holds that an ancient prophet named "Lei" lived and judged the people in the village at a time corresponding to the Book of Mormon narrative.
Some LDS historians and tourists believe this cave could have been the location where Lehi's sons stayed while trying to retrieve the Brass Plates, based on prophecies written on the walls of the cave. While there are some striking similarities and circumstantial evidence to support this view, there is no concrete evidence that "Lehi" and "Lei" are connected. Because the evidence is circumstantial, FARMS (Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies) has offered caution against tying the two together.[2]
The site remains a popular destination for LDS tourists.
A tribe called the Lihyanites (“People of Lihy”) came into existence between the 6th and 4th century B.C in the area of al-Bad on the Arabian peninsula. This tribe came to power and ruled this area for over 300 years. Prior to approximately 600 B.C., this area was under control of the Dedanites. Some LDS researchers have speculated that the passage of Lehi through this area around 600 B.C. had an influence upon an existing tribe, and that they adopted his name.[2] The Lihyanite civilization left behinds ruins, including a temple, a ceremonial font and inscriptions. [2] LDS scholars caution, however, that "far too little is yet known about early Arabia to strengthen a link with the historical Lehi, and other explanations are readily available for every point advanced, attractive and intriguing as they may be to Latter-day Saints."[57]
The Wadi Tayyib al-Ism, 72 miles by trail from Aqaba, is considered to be a plausible location for the River of Laman by some LDS researchers.[58] Another LDS researcher, citing problems with the proposed Wadi Tayyib al-Ism location, indicates that there are a number of other sites along the Gulf of Eilat's eastern shoreline that meet the requirements for this location, such as one of the wadis near the shore at Bir Marsha.[59]
Main articles: Nahom
The Book of Mormon states that Ishmael, the patriarch of the family that left with Lehi's, was buried "in the place which was called Nahom" early in the journey from Jerusalem to Bountiful. It was also at Nahom that the travelers made a significant change in the direction of their travel from "south-southeast" to "nearly eastward." It is significant that "Nahom" is one of the few places mentioned in the Book of Mormon that was not named by Lehi, thus suggesting that this was a pre-existing place name. This Nahom has been equated by a number of LDS scholars with a location in Yemen referred to as "NHM" (Vowels in ancient Hebrew are spoken but not always written [60]). The name NHM is referred to in inscriptions found on altars dated to about 600 B.C.E.. The altars were found in a location consistent with the location at which Lehi's party would have had to change their route toward the east. The modern name of the location is "Nihm" and it is known as an ancient burial site and is south-southeast of Jerusalem. A turn nearly due east at this location (as described in the Book of Mormon) would bring Lehi's group to the place Bountiful on the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula".[61][62]
There are a variety of challenges to the claim that Nahom correlates with NHM. Some claim that Joseph Smith might have learned of NHM from existing 19th century sources.[63] Some suggest that either the vowels or consonants between the word ''Nahom'' and various derivatives of the root ''NHM'' do not represent an accurate correlation.[64]
Main articles: Bountiful (Book of Mormon)
LDS scholars believe they have located several plausible locations for the ''land'' Bountiful, as well as the ''place'' Bountiful where the Book of Mormon says Lehi camped and the harbour where it says Nephi built his ship for the purpose of crossing the ocean to come to the Americas. The location of Salalah was proposed by Hugh Nibley and is supported by Lynn and Hope Hilton. [2] The location at Khor Rori is supported by Potter and Wellington of the Nephi Project.[66] The location of Wadi Sayq (west of Salalah near the border of Yemen) and it's associated harbor Khor Kharfot is supported by Warren Aston.[67]
In the early 1950s while excavating the harbor of Khor Rori (40 kilometers east of Salalah), American archaeologist Wendell Phillips discovered multiple plates made of Bronze, engraved with a Talmudic script and Arabian Shahri. [68]
The New World setting for the Book of Mormon narrative has been placed everywhere from South and Central America to the Finger Lakes region in New York (possibly referring to the Mound Builders), which some equate to the fortifications described in the Book of Mormon.
The dominant assumption among Latter Day Saints has been that the New World portion narrative's setting encompasses all of the Americas, and that The Lamanites are the "principal ancestors of the American Indians."[69] The Book of Mormon speaks of a narrow neck of land, and it has been an intuitive assumption for readers that the Isthmus of Panama fits this requirement.[2]
Main articles: Limited Geography Model (Book of Mormon)
The Limited Geography Model, formally proposed by LDS scholars in 1984, states that the text of the Book of Mormon narrative itself supports a limited region only hundreds of miles in dimension and that other people were present in the New World at the time of Lehi's arrival.[2] One book compiled by prominent Mormon scholar John Sorenson has more than 400 pages of possible location theories placing the Book of Mormon events everywhere from the Finger Lakes region of the Northeast United States to Chile.[72] However, all theories acknowledge that there are no existing landmarks that will identify, without dispute, the places in the New World portion of the Book of Mormon narrative.
After constructing an internal geographical model for the Book of Mormon and then comparing it to all of the proposed geographical regions, most LDS scholars now agree that there is only a single plausible match with the geography in Mesoamerica centered around the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. This area includes the area of current day Guatemala, the southern Mexico States of Tabasco, Chiapas, Oaxaca, Veracruz, and the surrounding area.[2].
The Limited Geography Model has been critiqued by a number of scholars, who suggest that it is not an adequate explanation for Book of Mormon geography and that the locations, events, flora and fauna described in it do not precisely match.[74][75] In response to one of these critiques in 1994, Sorenson reaffirmed his proposal for a limited Mesoamerican geographical setting.[76]
A limited geographical setting for the Book of Mormon has been suggested by many church leaders, including Joseph Smith, Orson Pratt, Parley P. Pratt, and B. H. Roberts.[77]
Some Latter Day Saint scholars have suggested that it is possible that the events recorded in the Book of Mormon took place somewhere other than the Western Hemisphere. For example, one scholar has suggested that many Book of Mormon events could plausibly be placed in the Malay Peninsula.[78] This author has acknowledged that consideration of his "Malay hypothesis" by LDS scholars would require Book of Mormon archaeology to "undergo a radical paradigm shift—one that many would consider quite far-fetched."
LDS scholars have used the Mesoamerican geographical model to correlate Book of Mormon cultures with known cultures in the region. While such comparisons are performed in order to determine the plausibility of these correlations, it should be noted that neither the text of the Book of Mormon or the scholars who support it make any definitive claim that the Book of Mormon describes the Olmec or Mayan civilizations.
Many LDS scholars believe that the Olmec civilization matches the appropriate time and place to be identified with the Jaredite civilization in The Book of Mormon. The book of Mormon places the Jaredite civilization in the new world at the time of the Tower of Babel (estimated to be between 3100 BC and 2200 BC). The specific date of arrival in the New World is not identified. The Jaredite civilization is said to have been completely destroyed as the result of a civil war at the approximate time that Lehi's party is said to have arrived in the New World (approximately 590 B.C.).
The Olmec civilization flourished in Mesoamerica during the Preclassic period, dating from 1200 BC to about 400 BC. The Olmec civilization suddenly disintegrated for unknown reasons, although archaeological evidence clearly indicates a definite Olmec influence within the Maya civilization that followed. Although the Olmec civilization ended, there are indications that some of the Olmec people survived and interacted with other cultures.[79]
The Maya civilization has been suggested as the Lamanite culture depicted in the Book of Mormon. There is substantial debate about whether the material and linguistic culture of these civilizations corresponds to the descriptions in the Book of Mormon.
Establishing connections between ruins of the Mayan civilization (for example, Quirigua, Kaminaljuyu, and Tikal in Guatemala, and Copán in Honduras, and Palenque in Mexico) and the cities and civilizations mentioned in the Book of Mormon has been difficult for LDS scholars on a number of fronts. Perhaps the most significant issue is the dating. By Old-World standards, the Mayan ruins are relatively recent; conventional archeology places the pinnacle of Mayan civilization several centuries after the final events in the Book of Mormon account. LDS scholars suggest that the Book of Mormon record follows the Nephite civilization until its destruction, but the Lamanite civilization remained (possibly the Maya). This would explain the more modern ruins that are from a much later time period.
The standard construction practice employed by the Maya was to build new structures on top of older structures. Many older structures are either contained within or their rubble is buried under the structures which were built later.[80]
No civilization has been identified as correlating with the Nephite culture, and it is postulated by LDS scholars that the Nephite culture was probably characterized by unpretentious Christian discipleship inconsistent with impressive monuments and stone artisanship. As such, LDS scholars have postulated several views, one view holds that a Nephite culture may have existed within the greater Lamanite (usually Maya) culture. Another view holds that the events surrounding some portions of the Book of Mormon may have occurred in the Great Lakes Region in ancient times. The Golden Plates were reported to have been found near this general area and there are accounts of long journeys separating the Lamanite and Nephite cultures in the Book of Mormon. There is also evidence of an extensive highway system running the length of the Appalachian Mountains in the Eastern United States from Upstate New York to Georgia which had been used by Native Americans going far back into ancient times. It remains unknown if the proper names or language used to describe Christ relied upon the Hebrew Language or used an entirely different term than the Judeo-Christian name "Jesus Christ". The Book of Mormon is presently claimed to have been translated from an entirely different language than that spoken in the Holy Land.
It should be noted that according to the Book of Mormon the Nephite civilization was severely damaged at the time of Christ, with many major cities being completely destroyed. There is a 300 year period in the Book of Mormon after Christ arrival which there is little mentioned about the Nephite civilization. Whether the people re-built the damaged cities, or migrated is not entirely known. The migration of the Nephites to rebuilt else where would have profound impacts on the study of the Book of Mormon.
Many discredit the notion that the Nephite civilization took place in the great lakes region because it does not match up geographically with Book of Mormon accounts. Before Christ appears to the Nephites, the Book of Mormon tells of three days of horrendous literal darkness and earth quakes. The account of this destruction and particularly the darkness that "could be felt" has led many to believe that this darkness was caused by a volcanic eruption. Since there are no active Volcanoes on the eastern half of North America it seems unlikely under this view that it is where the Book of Mormon took place. While the golden plates were discovered in the great lakes region it is thought that they were brought there by Moroni after wandering in the wilderness for many years trying to escape from the Lamanites
All of the dates given in the Book of Mormon are stated in terms of the Nephite calendar. The system of dates used by the Lamanites is not stated. The highest numbered month mentioned is the eleventh, and the highest numbered day is the twelfth, but the total number of months in a year and the number of days in a month is not specified.[81]
Most North American tribes relied upon a calendar of 13 months, since there are 13 distinct cycles of the moon each year. Seasonal Rounds and ceremonies were performed each moon. Months were counted in the days between phase cycles of the moon itself. Calendar Systems in use in North America during this historical period relied on this simple system.[82]
One of the more distinctive features shared among pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations is the use of an extensive system of inter-related calendars. The epigraphic and archaeological record for this practice dates back at least 2,500 years, by which time it appears to have been well-established.[83] The most widespread and significant of these calendars was the 260-day calendar, formed by combining 20 named days with 13 numerals in successive sequence (13 × 20 = 260).[2] Another system of perhaps equal antiquity is the 365-day calendar, approximating the solar year, formed from 18 'months' × 20 named days + 5 additional days. These systems and others are found in societies of that era such as the Olmec, Zapotec, Mixe-Zoque, Mixtec and Maya (whose system of Maya calendars are widely regarded as the most intricate and complex among them) reflected the vigesimal (base 20) numeral system and other numbers, such as 13 and 9.
Although the number 7 is a co-factor in some Mesoamerican calendars (such as the Mayan 819-day calendar, formed from 13 × 9 × 7 days), none of the known calendar systems used a 7-day count as an exclusive or prominent base.
Many North American Cultures considered the numbers 7 and 13 to be particularly sacred. 13 was associated with the earth itself because it represented the cycles of the moon each year, and the number 7 was the lunar cycle midpoint between the seasons of summer and winter. North American Tribes experienced yearly fluctations in the availability of various food sources throughout the year, and the number 7 corresponded in MesoAmerican and North American Cultures with the ripening of Maize crops, since the cultivars of ''Zea Mays'' (corn) grown by these cultures matured in the 7th lunar cycle of each seasonal round (year).
The Book of Mormon makes reference to various forms of punishment, a number of which include capital punishment for certain offenses. Alma refers to his son Shiblon as having been "stoned." ()[85]
The Aztecs are known to have stoned thieves and dishonest merchants in the public square.[86]
LDS scholar Hugh Nibley once stated that approximately one-third of the content of the Book of Mormon deals with matters related to warfare[87] LDS researchers also suggest that the Book of Mormon's account of large-scale warfare has been confirmed by findings in ancient Mesoamerica.[88]
According to the Nephite calendar, wars occurred mostly at the end or beginning of the year, starting with the tenth month and ending with the fifth month, with peak fighting occurring between the eleventh and second months. The sixth through ninth months do not record any significant battles. LDS scholars correlate this timing with specific seasons of the year, with the end and beginning of the year corresponding to the most ideal time for war. It is suggested that the end of the year was December 21st or 22nd, the date of the winter solstice. The Book of Mormon records thirty-two battles as having occurred at the end and beginning of the calendar year.[81] A description of events related to one battle at the end of the year refers to the "heat of the day," indicating that the end of the year was a warm season ().[90]
There are ten instances in the Book of Mormon in which cities are described as having defensive fortifications. For example, Alma 52:2 describes how the Lamanites "sought protection in their fortifications" in the city of Mulek ().
Archaeologists have noted the existence of ancient Mesoamerican defensive fortifications. [91] Military fortifying berms are found in the Yucatan Peninsula, [92][93] in the region appropriate to where LDS scholars suggest that the wars described in the ''Book of Mormon'' could plausibly have occurred.
Some LDS researchers suggest that structures similar to those described by the ''Book of Mormon'' are also found on some Native American mounds in Ohio, New York, and in the rest of the New England region. These mounds and their fortifications were a topic of intense controversy and discussion during the early years of the 19th century. However, beyond the similarities, no indisputable links of these structures to ''Book of Mormon'' civilizations have been found.
The Maya ruin known as Lamanai located in present-day Belize has attracted some attention from LDS proponents, who note the similarity of its name with ''Lamanite'' (or the Hebrew language equivalent). The origin of this placename is known to Mayanist scholarship as the name used by the local Maya peoples, transcribed in 16th-century Spanish documents. The name is confirmed by the decipherments of Classical era (ca. 250–900 A.D.) inscriptions at the site, where it appears as ''lam'an'ain'', a Classic Maya expression meaning "(place of) submerged crocodile(s)".[94]
Main articles: Izapa Stela 5
In the early 1950s, M. Wells Jakeman of the BYU Department of Archaeology suggested that a complicated scene carved on Stela 5 in Izapa was a depiction of a Book of Mormon event called Lehi's dream, which features a vision of the tree of life.[95] This interpretation is disputed by other Mormon and non-Mormon scholars.[96]
LDS researchers point out that carved monuments exist that purportedly depict people with Semitic features. One such artifact is La Venta Stela 3, which depicts two people facing each other. One of the two people depicted has a "striking beard and beaked nose," which has caused some researchers to refer to him as "Uncle Sam." [97]
There has been considerable debate regarding whether Copan Stela B depicts elephants or macaws. [2][2]
Horses are mentioned fourteen times in the ''Book of Mormon''. Three of these references are contained within prophetic statements (such as those of Isaiah) which do not directly describe events related to Book of Mormon people. There are four instances in which horses and chariots are mentioned in the same verse.[100] No specific mention is made of what the horses were used for, or if they were used with the chariots in some manner. It has been speculated by some LDS scholars that horses may have been used for food.[101] The use of horses for food is also implied from the context of , which lists horses along with other food animals:"[t]he Nephites...having reserved for themselves provisions, and horses and cattle, and flocks of every kind, that they might subsist for the space of seven years."
Despite depictions by LDS artists and assumptions by some authors, horses are never mentioned as being ridden or used in battle. Words such as “ride,” “saddle,” and “horseman” (and their variants) do not appear in the Book of Mormon, leaving some people to speculate that these animals are something other than what we call “horses” today (see Horses in the Book of Mormon).
Horses evolved in the Americas (see Evolution of the horse), and evidence has been found showing that pre-historic horses were hunted by the Paleo-Indian Clovis culture who appeared in North America approximately 13,500 years ago.[102][103] These horses co-existed among the other Pleistocene megafauna, including the various species of mammoths, which are a genus of the elephant family, and the mastodon which is a more distant relative of the elephant. The pre-historic species of New World horses became extinct at the end of the last Ice Age, along with the mammoths and 70% of the large mammal species in North America (see New World Pleistocene Extinctions). The dates of regional extinctions vary between approximately 10,000[104] and 12,500[105] years ago. Horses were not re-introduced to Americas until they were brought to the Caribbean by Christopher Columbus on his second journey to the New World in 1493[106]. Horses were first brought by the Cortés expedition to the North American continent, to areas of present-day Mexico and New Mexico, in 1519[107].
Elephants are mentioned twice in a single verse in the ''Book of Ether''.[108] The time period corresponding to this verse would be approximately 2500 B.C. Elephants, in particular, are mentioned as being "useful unto man." Elephants are never mentioned as having been present during the period of time during which the Nephite and Lamanite civilizations are said to have existed.
Scholars agree that mastadons and mammoths once lived in the New World. The main point of contention is how late these animals were present before becoming extinct.[2] Current archaeological data suggests that elephants were hunted to extinction by early inhabitants of the New World sometime around 8,000 BC.
There are instances of stories preserved orally by Native Americans which some LDS scholars believe may describe elephants. One such story is related by the Naskapi Indian Tribe, located in Canada. The story concerns a monster from the Naskapi tradition called ''Katcheetohuskw'', which is described as being very large, with large ears, teeth and a long nose.[110] Similar versions of "monster" legends related by other tribes refer to a monster called ''Ursida'', which is described as more of a large, stiff-legged bear rather than a mammoth. The story of the "monster bear" is considered by some scholars to be purely mythical. [111]
References to ''cattle'' are made seven times in the Book of Mormon, with two of these appearing within doctrinal or prophetic statements. Four instances refer to cattle being among the possessions of the Nephites, without stating the manner in which they were used. One instance found in the book of Ether states specifically that the Jaredites used cattle for food ().
There has been no evidence recovered that Old World cattle (members of the genus ''Bos'') ever inhabited the New World until European contact in the sixteenth century AD. However, in King James English, which is ostensibly the language the Book of Mormon was translated into, "cattle" meant "any domesticated quadruped"[112] or, in other words, "livestock".
Swine are referred to twice in the Book of Mormon. One of these instances in 3 Nephi 14:6 is in the context of a point of doctrine being taught and does not refer to the animal actually being present in the Nephite culture.[113] The Nephites were said to be living the Law of Moses,[114] and therefore would have been prohibited from eating swine.
The second instance in Ether 9:8 specifically mentions swine as being "useful for the food of man." Since the Jaredites are supposed to have left the Old World at the time of the Tower of Babel (prior to the time of Moses), they would not have been subject to the Law of Moses.
There have not been any remains, references, artwork, tools, or any other evidence suggesting that swine were ever present in the pre-entrada New World outside of the Book of Mormon. However, ancient authors would not be familiar with modern classification and could easily have applied the category to a related New World animal (such as the peccary).
The Book of Mormon mentions two unidentified animals in the Book of Ether. These animals are referred to as ''cureloms'' and ''cumoms'' and were identified as being "useful unto man," although the manner in which they were useful is not specified [115] LDS scholars note that the ''cureloms'' and ''cumons'' are considered more "useful unto man" than horses, which are mentioned in the same verse.[116]
Grains are mentioned twenty-eight times in the Book of Mormon. Corn is mentioned three times in the Book of Mormon as a crop that was planted and harvested by the Nephites. Barley is mentioned four times and wheat is mentioned once. [117]
The introduction of domesticated modern barley and wheat to the New World was made by Europeans sometime after 1492. Archaeological evidence discovered on the North American continent in Arizona, Illinois and Oklahoma shows that a variety of pre-Columbian barley existed and was cultivated in the New World.[117] No evidence of pre-Columbian barley has been discovered in Mesoamerica.
Two unknown crops referred to as ''sheum'' and ''neas'' are mentioned once in Mosiah 9:9.[2] Although they are mentioned in the same context as corn, wheat and barley, it is not clear that they were grains. LDS scholars point out that "the ancient Assyrian term ''sheum'' was used at various times to refer to barley, grains generally, and even pine nuts."[120]
The ''Book of Mormon'' mentions the use of chariots as a mode of transportation five times.[121] The "chariots" mentioned in the Book of Mormon are not referred to as having been used in battle.
There is no extant archaeological evidence to support the use of ''wheeled'' vehicles in Mesoamerica. Many parts of ancient Mesoamerica were not suitable for wheeled transport, although there is evidence that Mesoamericans had knowledge of the wheel, as shown by the discovery of wheeled toys left in tombs.[122] LDS scholars point out that the Hebrew root translated as "chariot" may also refer to a "litter, portable couch" or human-borne "sedan" chair without wheels.[123][124]
Some scholars believe that the absence of wheeled vehicles places the ''Book of Mormon'' at odds with the known archaeological record. LDS researchers respond with a comparison to Biblical archaeology, suggesting that though there are no archaeological evidences that any of the numerous ancient American civilizations used wheeled transportation, no chariot fragments have been found in the Middle East dating to Biblical times[125]. Although no fragments of chariots have been found in the Middle East, there are many images of ancient chariots on pottery and frescos and in many sculptures of mediterranean origin, thus confirming their existence in those societies. The complete absence of these images among the hundreds of frescoes, hundreds of thousands of pieces of decorated pottery and pre-Columbian artwork found in the New World does not support the existence of Old World style chariots in the New World.
Some have suggested that the absence of wheeled modes of transportation in the Americas could be due to a lack of draft animals (horse, bulls, camels, etc) on the American continent during pre-Columbian times. LDS scholars note that the usage of the word ''chariot'' in the Book of Mormon does not necessitate their dependence upon the use of draft animals.
Referencing the discovery of wheeled chariot "toys" in Mayan funerary settings, William J. Hamblin has suggested that the ''chariots'' mentioned in the Book of Mormon might refer to mythic or cultic wheeled vehicles.[126]
Main articles: Golden Plates
In addition to the "golden" plates from which the Book of Mormon was translated from, the narrative itself also mentions other writings recorded on metal plates. Archaeologists have long suggested either that ancient cultures did not keep records on metal plates, or that it was not practical. The difficulty of creating records on metal plates is referenced in the Book of Mormon narrative itself, in which Jacob states: "[A]nd I cannot write but a little of my words, because of the difficulty of engraving our words upon plates."[2]
Recent discoveries have provided some evidence that this was an established method for recording information considered important.[128] As a point of comparison, the oldest known Biblical verses preserved in archaeology are three verses from the Book of Numbers, chapter 6, verses 24-26, that were on a pair of small silver amulets found by Israeli archaeologist Gabriel Barkay at Ketef Hinnom and dated to the 6th century BC, during the same time period the Book of Mormon events are purported to have taken place.[129] However, no records have been found on metal plates to date which approach the size of the record in the Book of Mormon and no such records have been found on the American continents.
Discussion of the metal plates and their use in recent years has involved the weight and type of metal that these plates would have been made of. For a discussion of such topics, see Golden Plates and Reformed Egyptian.
The Book of Mormon states that metals, including iron and steel (an iron alloy), were produced and used among the Book of Mormon peoples. It has been pointed out that there is little evidence of steel production in central and southern America, and would have been difficult to produce steel in those locales. Iron and steel are mentioned together in the Bible.[130]
LDS scholars note that the word ''steel'' could have been an approximate translation, actually referring to another type of metal entirely for which there would have been no word in 19th century America (see Tumbaga and similar copper and iron based metals). ''Steel'' is only mentioned in three verses (, , ) in the Book of Mormon, all before 360 B.C. (by the book's chronology) and could have referred to an Old-World skill that was forgotten.
Possible evidence exists that iron and steel metallurgy took place among North American indigenous groups. Two internet sources, neither affiliated with the LDS, present a few sites that may provide possible evidence. One unusual site in Central Texas presents a hypothesized furnace carved directly into the bedrock of an ancient creekbed, and includes hypothesized blow holes manufactured also in the limestone creekbed. [131] Several iron bird effigies and an elephant effigy are presented to strengthen the hypothesis. The artifacts and smelting facilities have been found in the same context as Clovis and possible pre-Clovis stone artifacts. Clovis technology flourished in the Americas from 11,050 to 10,800 14C yr B.P., a little over 200 years, and then suddenly vanishes from the archeological record. This technology, and previous, pre-Clovis technologies existed many millennia before the traditional view of when the events described the Book of Mormon are said to have taken place.
Another website covers not only possible sites in the East, but also provides a small amount of evidence that may indicate that Anasazi or Hohokam tribes in the Southwest performed iron smelting. Other excavations in North America have uncovered what were once possibly iron smelting sites, and archaeological evidence including layering techniques support that they may have existed from pre-historic times (prior to the Hopewellian culture).[132] However, radiocarbon dating evidence for these sites places them at the beginning of the 18th century (1700s). Other researchers believe that these smelting sites were the work of Ohio's immigrants of European descent, although there is no evidence of European settlers in the area at the time.[133] Frontiersmen and trappers were not common, but not unheard of, and are likely candidates for the builders of the furnaces under this theory.
Brass is mentioned numerous times in the Book of Mormon. Most of these references refer to "plates of brass" obtained in the Old World. Both the Nephites and the Jaredites are referred to as having used brass in the New World.
A material called ''ziff'' is mentioned Mosiah 11:3 in the same context as gold, silver, copper, brass and iron. The manner in which this material is used is not specified, although the context of the verse implies that it has value. Some LDS scholars have speculated that word "''ziff''" comes from the Hebrew root ''zîw'', which indicates ""splendor, brightness, or brilliance." This might suggest a metal or alloy of metals such as tumbaga or electrum.[134]
The Book of Mormon makes numerous references to swords and their use in battle. There is a single verse which implies that the Jaredites had swords made of metal. When the remnants of the Jaredite's final battle were discovered, the Book of Mormon narrative states that "the blades thereof were cankered with rust."[135]
Warriors in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica are known to have used wooden clubs with blade-like obsidian flakes.[136]
The word ''coin'' does not appear in the primary text of any edition of the Book of Mormon. In 1981, a chapter heading with the words "Nephite coinage set forth" was added. The Book of Mormon describes a system of exchange based on measures of precious metals.
In the critical video ''Jesus Christ/Joseph Smith'', a statement is made that Book of Mormon coins "were noted as being common in Joseph’s writings."[137]
The overall use of metal in ancient America seems to have been extremely limited. A more common exchange medium in Mesoamerica were cacao beans.[138]
The Book of Mormon mentions the use of ''silk'' six times, with two of these instances referring to things seen in a vision by Nephi. The term ''silk'' as used in the Old World context designates a material that is created from the cocoon of the Asian moth ''Bombyx mori''. There are several materials which were used in Mesoamerica which the Spanish called "silk" upon their arrival.[139] The inhabitants of Mexico are known to have used the fiber spun by a wild silkworm to create a fabric.[12]
Existing documents (such as the ''Popol Vuh'' documents of the Quiché people) provide some further historical insights into the creation accounts of Mesoamerican peoples (by three feathered serpents). Coe's description of the creation account in the Popol Vuh describes the creation of the K'iche' Maya by the forefather gods Tepew and Q'ukumatz. These gods are said to have "brought forth the earth from a watery void," after which they placed plants and animals upon it. The gods then created "man-like" creatures from mud, but these creatures did not endure. Wooden creatures later appeared but were destroyed by the Gods, and were replaced by men made of flesh. The account describes how these men of flesh "turned to wickedness and were annihilated as black rains fell and a great flood swept the earth." Sometime after this destruction, the true K'iche' Maya were created from maize dough, becoming the ancestors of the Maya that we know today.[2]
Some argue that these accounts fail to resemble the creation account version offered in the Bible.
Another document of the Quiché, the ''Title of the Lords of Totonicapán'', significantly resembles the Biblical story of creation. This document has obvious influence from Spanish Catholicism, but its differences to both the Popol Vuh and the Biblical story are intriguing. In the first day, God created the great light. On the second day, the nine levels of the sky received life. In the third day God created all the mountains and plains, the trees and the rocks. And so on.
One interesting point is made when Lucifer, "combined with his sinful companions", rebel against God. God then sees necessary to cast them out of "the house of the sky".
God then creates man from the materials of the earth. The man refers to God as "Mother and Father". The man is also sent two comforters.
Following a detailed description of Cane and Abel, the Flood, and the Exodus, the Quiché state specifically that they are "descendants of the Israelites, of Moses. Of the tribes of Israel from where our grandparents and parents left. They came from where the sun leaves [from the West], there in Babyolonia where they celebrated rituals with the lord Nacxit; such was the origin of our lineage".
The rest of the proceeding story is similar in many regards to the account of the Popol Vuh. In several instances, the Quiché regarding themselves specifically as Israelites.
There are many legends of ancient "culture heroes" appearing in the New World. American historian and ethnologist Hubert Howe Bancroft lists some of these in his 1875 work ''The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America (Vol. 5)'': Quetzalcoatl in Cholula, Votan in Chiapas, Wixepecocha in Oajaca, Cukulcan in Yucatan, Gukumatz in Guatemala, Yiracocha in Peru, Sume and Paye-Tome in Brazil, and Bochica in Colombia.[142] According to Bancroft:
:''They are all described as white, bearded men, generally clad in long robes; appearing suddenly and mysteriously upon the scene of their labors, they at once set about improving the people by instructing them in useful and ornamental arts, giving them laws, exhorting them to practice brotherly love and other Christian virtues, and introducing a milder and better form of religion; having accomplished their mission, they disappear as mysteriously and unexpectedly as they came; and finally, they are apotheosized and held in great reverence by a grateful posterity.''[143]
The ancient Mesoamerican legend of Quetzalcoatl, depicted in some versions as "the bearded white god", is interpreted by some Latter-day Saints as a depiction of the actual visit of Jesus to the Americas as related and foretold 600 years before his coming in the Book of Mormon. Other students of ancient Mesoamerica do not accept this claim for several reasons: Quetzalcoatl, the Feathered Serpent deity, is depicted in Mesoamerican art dated several centuries before Jesus. The King Quetzalcoatl who promised to return to Mexico dated almost 1,000 years after the life of Jesus.[144] Finally, Quetzalcoatl may not have been discussed as either bearded or white before the intervention of the Spaniards. LDS scholars point out that part of the reason Hernan Cortes so easily conquered the Aztecs was that he fit the pre-existent Aztec conception of Quetzalcoatl, and thus the Aztecs hesitated to resist.
One modern interpretation of Mesoamerican mythology and astronomy has recast Quetzalcoatl, as well as the god Xolotl, as symbols of the planet Venus, whose appearance in the dawn and sunset sky was crucial to the measurements of the Maya calendar. The "return" of Quetzalcoatl, they claim, was a metaphor of Venus' appearance, indicating a new temporal cycle.
The Smithsonian Institute issued an official statement in 1996 and again in 1998 that it did not consider the Book of Mormon to be an authoritative reference for use in archaeological research.[145]
During the early 1980s, reports circulated in LDS culture that the Book of Mormon was being used by the Smithsonian to guide primary archaeological research. This rumor was brought to the attention of Smithsonian directors who, in 1996, sent a form letter to inquiring parties stating that the Smithsonian did not use the Book of Mormon to guide any research, and included a list of specific reasons Smithsonian archaeologists considered the Book of Mormon historically unlikely (some of which referred to things which are not even mentioned in the Book of Mormon).[146] In 1998, the Smithsonian revised the form letter they sent in response to this issue to take a less controversial stance,[147] specifically replacing detailed allegations of the non-historicity of the Book of Mormon with a simple statement that the Book of Mormon has not been used by the Smithsonian in any form of archaeological research. Mormon scholars suggest this may have been because the 1996 letter contradicts some aspects of research published by Smithsonian staff members; Non-LDS scholars note that the Smithsonian has not retracted any of its previous statements, and feel that the response was toned down to avoid negative public relations with Mormons. Terryl Givens suggests that the change in the statement was "in all likelihood a product of controversy-avoidance."[2] Some Mormon scholars speculate that the statement may have been revised because some of the reasons listed are considered controversial or even dubious (for reasons unrelated to the Book of Mormon) by some mainstream historians.
★
★ Dighton Rock
★ Izapa Stela 5
★ Khirbet Beit Lei
★ Linguistics and the Book of Mormon
★ Los Lunas Decalogue Stone
★ Newport Tower
★ Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact
★ Reformed Egyptian
★ Archaeology of Israel
★ Biblical archaeology
★ '' --on-line archive includes articles on Archeology and BoM
1. This has been an implicit consensus among all major LDS scholars since the publication of the Book of Mormon. For a general statement involving the only major theories and their history see a summary from BYU's website
2.
3. Faust states, "It is important to know what the Book of Mormon is not. It is not primarily a history, although much of what it contains is historical ... George Q. Cannon stated that 'the Book of Mormon is not a geographical primer. It was not written to teach geographical truths. What is told us of the situation of the various lands or cities … is usually simply an incidental remark connected with the doctrinal or historical portions of the work.' (''Juvenile Instructor'', Jan. 1890, p. 18.) What, then, is the Book of Mormon? It is confirming evidence of the birth, life, and crucifixion of Jesus and of his work as the Messiah and the Redeemer. Nephi writes about the Book of Mormon: 'All ye ends of the earth, hearken unto these words and believe in Christ; and if ye believe not in these words believe in Christ. And if ye shall believe in Christ ye will believe in these words, for they are the words of Christ.'" (2 Ne. 33:10.)
4.
5. ; An Introduction to the Study of the Book of Mormon James M Sjodahl Sjodahl also suggested that the Jaredite population may not have been completely destroyed.
6. ; A Guide to the Study of the Book of Mormon, , William E, Berrett, Department of Education of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ,
7. ; The Book of Mormon and the Ruins: The Main Issues, , Hugh W, Nibley, Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, ,
8.
9.
10.
11. A gallery and description of these paintings may be found at The Book of Mormon Paintings of Arnold Friberg
12.
13.
14.
15. New World Archaeological Foundation, online collections at BYU.
16. Citing the lack of specific New World geographic locations to search, Michael D. Coe, a prominent Mesoamerican archaeologist and Professor Emeritus of Anthropology at Yale University, writes (in a 1973 volume of Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought): "As far as I know there is not one professionally trained archaeologist, who is not a Mormon, who sees any scientific justification for believing [the historicity of The Book of Mormon], and I would like to state that there are quite a few Mormon archaeologists who join this group".
17. Mormons and Archaeology: An Outside View, , Michael D, Coe, Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, Michael Coe notes, "There can be no question that the BYU sponsored New World Archaeological Foundation's program has been an unqualified success. Its twenty years of excavations and exploration in Chiapas have put that state on the archaeological map and have established one of the longest and best archaeological sequences for any part of the New World. Credit for this goes to the foresight of [Thomas Stewart] Ferguson and the original directors, but especially to the first-class [LDS] archaeologists who have carried out the program. First and foremost among them, I would name Gareth W. Lowe, who has been field director for a number of years and who has established himself as the outstanding expert in the field of Formative Mesoamerica. And full praise must be given to the generosity and wisdom of the [LDS] Church leadership in providing financial backing for the foundation. 'Mormon archaeology' is no longer something that brings chuckles in Gentile circles."
18. See the Introduction to the Book of Mormon
19. One of the more vocal challengers to the DNA vs. The Book of Mormon issue is Dr. Thomas W. Murphy.
20.
21. Geneticists have noted the difficulties in using genetics in this area for a variety of reasons. Some of these are our lack of knowledge concerning Sariah's descent (or others' in Lehi's party), have access to DNA from this period (600 BC Israel), or know what other groups would have intermarried with these groups (or in what numbers). For more information see DNA and the Book of Mormon: A Phylogenetic Perspective, , Michael F, Whiting, Journal of Book of Mormon Studies,
22. Not having the ancient Israelite gene for comparison and the inability for DNA testing to link some Jewish groups that are known to be related, see Addressing Questions surrounding the Book of Mormon and DNA Research, , John M, Butler, FARMS Review, 2006 .
23. 1998 "Trinity Journal," an article entitled "Mormon Scholarship, Apologetics, and Evangelical Neglect: Losing the Battle and Not Knowing It?"
24.
25. See for example Jarom 1:8 discussing advanced machinery, Mosiah 8:5 and Mosiah 25:5 discussing semi-literateness of the Nephites] and Helaman 3:8 and 16 that discusses the heavy population of the Lehite peoples. Similar references may be found about the Jaredites, for which the reader is referred to the Book of Ether [1]
26. Under the Banner of Heaven, , Jon, Krakauer, Doubleday, , ISBN 0-385-50951-0
27. Are the Mormon Scriptures Reliable?, , Diane E, Wirth, FARMS Review, 1990 "Joseph Smith indicated that truth will yet spring from the earth, and I expect we will see things in the future that will further substantiate to the "doubting Thomas" that the Book of Mormon is indeed a factual, tangible record. Mesoamerican archaeology is in its infancy when compared to the numerous excavations of Egyptian sites. Any Mesoamerican archaeologist would admit we have yet much to learn, especially in regard to those years covering the Pre-Classic period, within which the bulk of the Book of Mormon story falls."
28.
29.
30.
31.
32. Mormons and Archaeology: An Outside View, , Michael D, Coe, Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought,
33.
34.
35.
36. entry on "American Indians", ''Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume VII'' (orig. pub. 1910); on-line at New Advent
37. ''Archaeology “proves” Bible not Book of Mormon, Michael R. Ash
38. The Maya, , Timothy, Laughton, Duncan Baird Publishers, , ISBN 1-84483-016-0 "In the late 1560s the Spanish bishop of Yucatan, Fray Diego de Landa, wrote of the Maya: 'These people also made use of certain characters or letters, with which they wrote in their books of ancient matters and sciences. We found a large number of books written in these characters and, as they contained nothing in which there was not superstition and lies of the devil, we burned them all...'"
39.
40. Introduction to Maya Hieroglyphs, Kettunen, Harri and Helmke, Christophe, , , Wayeb and Leiden University, 2005,
41. ''Ibid.''
42.
43. Archaeology and The Book of Mormon, , Hal, Hougey, Pacific Publishing, 1983,
44. Ancient America Rediscovered as recorded by Mariano Veytia (1720-1778), , Donald, Hemingway, Bonneville Books, 2000, ISBN 1-55517-479-5 Among some of the myths recorded by Veytia are that seven families traveled across the ocean to New Spain at the time of the confusion of tongues, the belief that there was a great flood, the suspension of the sun for a day, and the presence of giants in New Spain.
45. "Sir, Considering the Liberal Principles," Joseph Smith to N.C. Saxton, editor, American Revivalist, and Rochester Observer, 4 January 1833 (from Times and Seasons [Nauvoo, Illinois] 5 [15 November 1844], 21:705-707)
46. (See also Zelph)
47. "Did the Prophet Joseph Smith in 1842 Locate Book of Mormon Lands in Middle America?", by V. Garth Norman
48. Oliver Cowdery, "Letter Seven," Messenger and Advocate, July 1835
49. See, for example, the documentary ''Journey of Faith'' produced by the Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies; see also S. Kent Brown, "New Light from Arabia on Lehi's Trail," in ''Evidences and Echoes of the Book of Mormon'', ed. Donald W. Parry, Daniel C. Peterson, and John W. Welch [Provo, Utah: FARMS, 2002], 55–125, especially 81–85, 88–90
50. See Nahman Avigad and Benjamin Sass, Corpus of West Semitic Stamp Seals (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1997), 55, item no. 15.
51. Has the Seal of Mulek Been Found?, , Jeffrey R., Chadwick, Journal of Book of Mormon Studies,
52. "The clarity with which this journey is described has led Mormons, scholars included, to believe that the group traveled south across the Arabian Peninsula to modern-day Yemen or Oman."
53. A Case for Lehi's Bondage in Arabia, , S. Kent, Brown, Journal of Book of Mormon Studies,
54.
55.
56.
57. Review of "Discovering Lehi: New Evidence of Lehi and Nephi in Arabia", , Warren, Aston, , 1997
58. A New Candidate in Arabia for the "Valley of Lemuel", , George, Potter, Journal of Book of Mormon Studies, This claim was made by George Potter and Craig Thorsted of the Nephi Project on 11 May 1995.Nephi Project
59. The Wrong Place for Lehi's Trail and the Valley of Lemuel, , Jeffery R, Chadwick, Journal of Book of Mormon Studies,
60. Ancient Hebrew Research Center
61. Jeff Lindsay
62. Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies
63. On Nahom/NHM
64. Answering Mormon Scholars: A Response to Criticism Raised by Mormon Defenders, , Jerald, Tanner, Utah Lighthouse Ministry, ,
65.
66. ''Book of Mormon Explorers Claim Discoveries'', Nephi Project
67. In the Footsteps of Lehi: New Evidence for Lehi's Journey across Arabia to Bountiful, , Warren P. and Michaela Knoth, Aston, Deseret Book Company, , ISBN 0-87579-847-0
68. see the Nephi Project paper on the topic. One of the images engraved on the plates shown in the paper appears to be similar to sacred rites performed in Mormon temples.
69. "For many Mormons, this is as deep as their awareness of the origin of Native Americans extends. They remain oblivious to the large volume of research that has revealed continuous, widespread human occupation of the Americas for the last 14,000 years. Such research conflicts with popular LDS views patterned on the Book of Mormon and is therefore largely ignored."
70.
71.
72. Sorenson, John L., compiler. The Geography of Book of Mormon Events: A Source Book Provo: FARMS, 1992. ASIN: B0006QHZWE. The book is a compilation of hundreds of proposed locations, some problematic without major climate changes, others have many convincing elements.
73.
74. Critique of a Limited Geography for Book of Mormon Events, , Earl M, Wunderli, Dialog: A Journal of Mormon Thought,
75. Does the Shoe Fit? A Critique of the Limited Tehuantepec Geography, , Deanne G, Matheny, New Approaches to the Book of Mormon: Explorations in Critical Methodology,
76. Viva Zapato! Hurray for the Shoe!, , John L, Sorenson, FARMS Review of Books, 1994
77. Limited Geography and the Book of Mormon: Historical Antecedents and Early Interpretations, , Matthew, Roper, FARMS Review, 2004
78. Ralph A. Olsen, "A Malay Site for Book of Mormon Events", ''Sunstone Magazine'', Mar. 2004, 30.
79. Coe states that "much of complex culture in Mesoamerica has an Olmec Origin" and states that an "active interchange of ideas" occurred.
80. "Because the Maya had a habit of putting new buildings directly on top of older structures, Preclassic remains are few and far between at sites like Homul and Tikal that were occupied during the Classic period." David F. Salisbury, "Pushing back Maya origins" taken from Vanderbilt.edu
81. Seasons of War, Seasons of Peace, , John L, Sorenson, Rediscovering the Book of Mormon,
82. 13 Moons On the Turtles Back. A Native American Year of Moons'', ISBN 0-698-11584-8, Putnam and Grossnet Group, 199
83. First Dates: The Maya calendar and writing system were not the
only ones in Mesoamerica--or even the earliest, Marcus, Joyce, , , Natural History, 1991
84.
85. "For I know that thou wast in bonds; yea, and I also know that thou wast stoned for the word’s sake."
86. Aztec & Maya: Life in an Ancient Civilization, , Charles, Phillips, Hermes House, 2005,
87. Since Cumorah, , Hugh, Nibley, Deseret Book and FARMS, ,
88. Last-Ditch Warfare in Ancient Mesoamerica Recalls the Book of Mormon, , John L, Sorenson, Journal of Book of Mormon Studies,
89. Seasons of War, Seasons of Peace, , John L, Sorenson, Rediscovering the Book of Mormon,
90. This reference supports the Mesoamerican geography model over the Great Lakes Model, since there is no mention of cold or snow during these battles, as would have been the case in a North American setting.
91. "Bekan in the Chenes region just north of the Peten, which was completely surrounded by massive defensive earthworks some time between the second and fourth centuries B.C. These consist of a ditch and inner rampart, with a total height of 38 ft (11.6 m), and would have been formidable...if the rampart had been surmounted by a palisade."
92. Ensign Sept 1984, p. 28.
93. http://mayaruins.com/becan/aerial1.html
94. The Lamanai Archaeological Project, Lamanai, Belize
95. An Unusual Tree-of-Life Sculpture from Ancient Central America, , M. Wells, Jakeman, University Archaeological Society Newsletter, 1953
96. A New Artistic Rendering of Izapa Stela 5: A Step toward Improved Interpretation, , John E, Clark, Journal of Book of Mormon Studies, 1999
97. The Mulekites, , John, Sorenson, BYU Studies, 1990
98.
99.
100. Instances in which horses and chariots are mentioned: Alma 18: 9 "And they said unto him: Behold, he is feeding thy horses. Now the king had commanded his servants...that they should prepare his horses and chariots"; Alma 18: 12 "And it came to pass that when Ammon had made ready the horses and the chariots for the king and his servants..."; Alma 20: 6 "Now when Lamoni had heard this he caused that his servants should make ready his horses and his chariots." 3 Ne. 3: 22 "[A]nd they had taken their horses, and their chariots..."
101. Basic Methodological Problems with the Anti-Mormon Approach to the Geography and Archaeology of the Book of Mormon, , William J, Hamblin, Featured Papers,
102. Identification of Horse Exploitation by Clovis Hunters Based on Protein Analysis, , Brian, Kooyman, American Antiquity,
103. Remains Show Ancient Horses Were Hunted for Their Meat, , Hillary, Mayell, National Geographic News,
104. Late Pleistocene Horse (Equus sp.) from the Wilson-Leonard Archaeological Site, Central Texas
105. Rapid body size decline in Alaskan Pleistocene horses before extinction
106. Wild Horses as Native North American Wildlife
107. A brief history of the horse in America; Horse phylogeny and evolution
108. "And they also had horses, and asses, and there were elephants..."
109.
110. Men and Elephants in America, , Ludwell H III, Johnson, Scientific Monthly, Johnson states that the stories claimed that the monster was "very large, had a big head, large ears and teeth, and a long nose with which he hit people."
111. Mammoth or "Stiff-Legged Bear", , F. T. Jr, Siebert, American Anthropologist,
112. ''See'' Dictionary.com and Strong's Concordance
113. "[N]either cast ye your pearls before swine."
114. "Yea, and they did keep the law of Moses; for it was expedient that they should keep the law of Moses as yet, for it was not all fulfilled."
115. "[A]nd there were elephants and cureloms and cumoms; all of which were useful unto man, and more especially the elephants and cureloms and cumoms."
116. Basic Methodological Problems with the Anti-Mormon Approach to the Geography and Archaeology of the Book of Mormon, , William J, Hamblin, Featured Papers, See footnote 112: "Horses are never said to have been ridden in the Book of Mormon. Chariots are mentioned in association with horses (only in one incident, Alma 18:9–12; 20:6). This may be another indication that the horse was uncommon, since in societies where horseback riding is known the use of chariots rapidly declines. Furthermore, cureloms and cumoms were thought to be more useful to man than horses (Ether 9:19), a clear indication of the relative unimportance of the horse in Book of Mormon societies. Indeed, horses may have been used primarily for food."
117. Barley and Wheat in the Book Mormon, , , , Featured Papers,
118. Barley and Wheat in the Book Mormon, , , , Featured Papers,
119.
120. Barley and Wheat in the Book Mormon, , , , Featured Papers, ; Gelb, Ignace J., et al., eds., ''The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago'' (Chicago: Oriental Institute, 1992), vol. 17, part 2, pages 345–55.
121. , ,
122. Aztec & Maya: Life in an Ancient Civilization, , Charles, Phillips, Hermes House, ,
123. John L. Sorenson's book, Images of Ancient America: Visualizing Book of Mormon Life (Provo, Utah: Research Press (1998))
124. The word "wheel" does not occur in conjunction with chariots or travel in the Book of Mormon
125. Sorenson, p. 59
126. See [http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/display.php?table=review&id=68 Pre-Columbian Contact with the Americas across the Oceans: An Annotated Bibliography
127.
128. While the Book of Mormon would be the longest such record engraved on plates found to date, such engraving is a documented ancient method of preservation Lehi's Jerusalem and Writing on Metal Plates
129. Lehi's Jerusalem and Writing on Metal Plates, , William J, Adams, Journal of Book of Mormon Studies,
130. Jeremiah 15:12: "Can iron break steel from the north?"
131. PreClovis Artifacts from Central Texas
132. America's Mysterious Furnaces
133. Were Ohio's Pit Smelters The Work of Pioneers?
134. What's in a Name? A Look at the Book of Mormon Onomasticon by John A. Tvedtnes
135. "And again, they have brought swords, the hilts thereof have perished, and the blades thereof were cankered with rust."
136. Swords and "Cimeters" in the Book of Mormon, , Matthew, Roper, Journal of Book of Mormon Studies, "Spaniards who faced native Mesoamerican swords in battle were deeply impressed by their deadly cutting power and razorlike sharpness."
137. ''Jesus Christ/Joseph Smith'' Video, Tri-Grace Ministries, distributed 2007. See segment on "Archaeological Evidence." The specific writings of Joseph Smith in which coins are said to be discussed as being "common" are not identified in the video.
138. "[W]ell into Colonial times the beans served as a form of money in regional markets."
139. See Fairlds.org's article (right side middle). "The Spanish reported several kinds of “silk.” One kind of silk was spun from the hair of rabbit’s bellies, another may have come from a wild silkworm, and yet a third came from the pod of the ceiba tree. Spanish chronicles report that types of “silk” were spun and woven in Mesoamerica before their arrival."
140.
141.
142. The native races of the Pacific states of North America, , Hubert Howe, Bancroft, , 1875,
143. Bancroft, 1875, p 23
144. "Quetzalcoatl the Myth", University of California, San Diego undergrad. project
145. Smithsonian Issues Statement regarding Book of Mormon http://www.irr.org/mit/smithson.html
146. A letter that was sent to one inquiring party
147. The Smithsonian Institution's 1996 "Statement Regarding the Book of Mormon"
148.
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★ (Pro) http://www.weaverresearch.org/tomsfinalpaper.htm
★ (Pro) http://farms.byu.edu/publications/bookofmormonview.php?subcat=100&cat=1
★ (Pro) http://www.jefflindsay.com/LDSFAQ/DNA.shtml
★ (Pro) http://www.lds.org/newsroom/mistakes/0,15331,3885-1-18078,00.html
★ (Pro) http://jefflindsay.com/BMEvidences.shtml
★ (Pro) http://www.bmaf.org Book of Mormon Archaeological Forum
★ (Pro) http://www2.ida.net/graphics/shirtail/keystone.htm
★ (Pro) http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/pdf.php?filename=MTQwNTUyMzg2LTEyLTIucGRm&type=amJtcw==
★ (Neutral) Larson, Stan, ''The Odyssey of Thomas Stuart Ferguson.'' Dialogue 23 (1) Spring 1990: 55-93.
★ (Neutral) King, David S, ''"Proving" the Book of Mormon: Archaeology Vs. Faith.'', Dialogue 24 (1) Spring 1991: 143-146.
★ (Con) Coe, Michael, "Mormons and Archeology - An Outside View", ''Dialogue'', Summer, 1973.
★ (Con) http://www.religioustolerance.org/lds_migr1.htm
★ (Con)http://www.irr.org/mit/bompage.html
★ (Con) http://www.ericbarger.com/mormon.dna.htm
★ (Con) http://www.contenderministries.org/mormonism/bomproblems.php
★ (Con) The Skeptics Annotated BOM
★ (Con) http://utlm.org/topicalindexa.htm#Archeology
★ (Con) http://www.lhvm.org/index.htm (Living Hope Ministries official webpage)
★ (Con) http://www.mormonchallenge.com/index.htm
LDS cultural belief regarding Book of Mormon archaeology
Traditional views of New World population
Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believe that ancient Israelites traveled to the Americas. Early in Church History many church members believed that the three groups mentioned in the Book of Mormon exclusively populated in a short time an empty North and South American Continent.[2] This view today is only held by a few, many readers of the Book of Mormon assume the land was already populated by other people; although readers believe strongly that these groups had profound impacts on the culture and lifestyles of people in the Americas
LDS academic views of New World population
LDS scholars, however, have long taken a more critical view regarding the assumption that no other people were present in the New World at the time of Lehi's arrival.
★ In 1927, Janne Sjodahl stated that "students of the Book of Mormon should be cautioned against the error of supposing that all the American Indians are the descendants of Lehi, Mulek and their companions."[5]
★ In 1938 a church study guide for the Book of Mormon stated that "the Book of Mormon deals only with the history and expansion of three small colonies which came to America, and it does not deny or disprove the possibility of other immigrations, which probably would be unknown to its writers."[6]
★ From 1952 onward, LDS scholar Hugh Nibley repeatedly argued that the assumption that there were no other people present in the New World at the time of Lehi's arrival might be incorrect.
★ In 1980 Nibley, referring to archaeological evidence, stated that the assumption of an empty New World represented a "simplistic reading" of the Book of Mormon.[7] By the middle of the twentieth century, most LDS authors held the belief that the Book of Mormon events took place within a limited region in Mesoamerica, and that others were present on the continent at the time of Lehi's arrival.[2]
★ This geographical and population model was formally published in the official church magazine, ''The Ensign'', in September 1984,[2] and was followed by a book on the subject by LDS anthropologist John L. Sorenson in 1985.[2]
LDS artists influence on popular perception
LDS artists have had an influence on popular perceptions of what exactly the Book of Mormon portrays. Some editions of the Book of Mormon include a series of paintings by LDS artist Arnold Frieburg which are intended to illustrate specific events portrayed in the narrative.[11] Nephites are depicted as muscular individuals who dress in Roman style armor and carry large, traditional steel swords. In a scene depicting Mormon and Moroni observing the final battle, Moroni is portrayed wearing a metal helmet with large horns and a crest. In a different scene, Captain Moroni is portrayed wearing a crested helmet and metal breastplate, and is surrounded by warriors who are raising long metal swords. In a portrayal of Helaman leading his two thousand warriors, Helaman is shown astride a large horse, which is itself wearing a crested helmet. Horses, however, are never actually described as having been ridden or used in battle in the Book of Mormon.
LDS efforts to establish Book of Mormon archaeology
Early attempts
Many faithful Latter Day Saints have attempted to analyze the text of the ''Book of Mormon'' and use it as a guide to locate archaeological sites. Some of these early attempts, although sincere in intent, have led to further confusion on the issue as the result of questionable scholarship. Some have based their conclusions on archaeological data that is considered to be fradulent.[12] In recent years, this has caused LDS scholars to take a very critical approach to the work of other LDS researchers on the subject. John Sorenson states that "LDS scholars themselves have attacked the same shoddy scholarship that makes Book of Mormon archaeology a playground for hobbyists."[2]
Modern approach
Several candidates considered likely by LDS researchers have been proposed for the Middle Eastern sites mentioned in the ''Book of Mormon''. However, fewer distinct landmarks are given in the ''Book of Mormon'' for sites in the Americas, making study in the Western Hemisphere more difficult. Because of confusion brought about by early attempts to establish a New World archaeology, most Mormon scholars now take a different approach: analyze archaeological findings for parallels and correlations with information found in the ''Book of Mormon''. Although LDS scholars have found no indisputable proof of the book's historicity, they have accumulated a large amount of what they believe is supporting and circumstantial evidence.
In addition to the search for supporting physical evidence, there is a growing body of work from LDS scholars such as John L. Sorenson that attempts to apply a "flesh-and-blood" reality to the cultures in the Book of Mormon. This approach uses what the authors refer to as "contextual knowledge" in order to establish a plausible setting for the cultural events of the Book of Mormon within the context of known Mesoamerican historical settings. The goal is to determine places and times at which Book of Mormon events occurred that correlate with similar events in the Mesoamerican historical record.[2]
From the mid-1950s onwards, the Church-owned Brigham Young University has sponsored (under the banner of the ''New World Archaeological Foundation'', or NWAF) a large number of archaeological excavations in Mesoamerica, with a focus on the Mesoamerican time period known as the Preclassic (earlier than ''c.'' AD 200).[15] The results of these and other investigations, while producing valuable archaeological data, have not led to any widespread acceptance by non-LDS archaeologists of the Book of Mormon account.[16] They have, however, led to increased respect for LDS archaeological efforts in the field.[17]
Genetic studies
Main articles: Genetics and the Book of Mormon
The Book of Mormon tells of the people of Jared, consisting of several families from the Tower of Babel, who migrated to America from the Old World before Abraham's time; a group including Lehi's family who migrated to America from Jerusalem around 600 B.C.; and another group (the people of Mulek) who migrated to America from Jerusalem about 8 years later. The Book of Mormon makes no overt assertions regarding the migration or non-migration of other groups to America, though an introductory paragraph added to the book starting with the 1981 edition identified the Lamanites as the "principal ancestors of the American Indians."[18]
Many people have examined existing genetic data in order to determine its relationship to the people described in the Book of Mormon. Several studies have been performed in which DNA from modern indigenous Americans has been examined in an attempt to determine Native American origins. Several authors have published works that suggest that current studies of genetic anthropology using DNA evidence do not provide support for the Book of Mormon.[19][2] Other researchers warn against using genetics to attempt to prove or disprove the historicity of the Book of Mormon, citing a lack of source genes and the improbability of tracing Israelite DNA even if it was present.[21][22]
Apologetics and archaeology
Webster's Dictionary defines "apologetics" as a "systematic argumentative discourse in defense" of a position. Many believing Book of Mormon researchers have in the late twentieth century shifted their focus from "apologetics" to "studies." This has generally resulted in better scholarship among believers as researchers have focused more on real answers than on talking points, though ironically this shift of focus has provided better material for apologists. In fact, a recent evangelical publication lamented the lack of serious scholarship responding to the "sophistication and erudition" of LDS apologetic scholarship.[23] For Book of Mormon researchers "archaeology and ''The Book of Mormon''" is no longer driven solely by the apologist/skeptic debate, but by a serious research interest in the Book of Mormon itself.
The following are some of the specific reasons most Mormon apologists do not place much emphasis on apologetics through archaeology:
# The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints officially discourages conversion through the intellect in favor of conversion through faith and personal revelation.
# Though some consensuses are being formed, Book of Mormon studies are still in their youth.
# Both casual LDS and non-LDS researchers tend to make errors of assumption because
#
★ Most modern archaeological research of the Mesoamerican area dates to a time after the Book of Mormon narrative ends. The people the Book of Mormon narrative primarily concerns (the Nephites) purportedly disperse and their language, religion, and culture eventually deteriorate.
#
★ Some interpretations of the text of The Book of Mormon suggest there may have been other people and cultures in the same lands at the same time (though the book concerns itself primarily with peoples of Old World ancestry), possibly large populations and many different cultures[2].
#
★ The Book of Mormon narrative says that the Lamanites hunted down and destroyed the surviving Nephites and conceivably most evidence of the Nephite civilization and culture.
#There are no geographic landmarks discussed in relation to other landmarks in Book of Mormon after the time of Christ that can be substantially identified, either by description or by their relation to other sites. Those prior to the "great upheavals" that took place in the Book of Mormon at the death of Jesus, do not contain enough detail to allow identification.
State of archaeological research
A great deal of data have been accumulated over more than two hundred years of American archaeological research. While the completeness of this research suffers in comparison with Old World archaeology, substantial insights into pre-Columbian civilizations, technologies, movements, and history have been established. These include the Formative Mesoamerican civilizations such as the (Pre-Classic) Maya, Olmec and Zapotec, which flourished during the approximate period the events related in the Book of Mormon are said to have occurred.
The ''Book of Mormon'' describes three heavily populated, semi-literate, technologically advanced[25] civilizations. The record primarily deals with the Nephites and the Lamanites, who existed in the Americas from about 600 BC to AD 400. It also deals with the rise and fall of the Jaredite nation, which existed in the Americas starting at the time of the Tower of Babel (which many Biblical literalist scholars date to between 3100 BC and 2200 BC) until as late as 400 BC.
Some argue that the data and artifacts from these peoples do not appear to be related to the description of ancient civilizations given in the Book of Mormon.[26] Others see a variety of evidence which they feel corroborates the Book of Mormon account. Regardless, the archaeology of North and South America is still considered by many to be a developing field of study.[27]
Population estimates
While the book does not explicitly state whether these three civilizations were the sole inhabitants of the ancient Americas, most LDS scholars have interpreted certain parts of the text as being indicative of the presence of and interactions with other groups of people whose origins are not stated.[2] Though no complete population counts are given in the book, there are indications given of the number of people present in the Nephite civilization at various points in time. Four centuries after the arrival of Lehi's party, Zeniff's small Nephite colony is attacked by the Lamanites in a battle in which three thousand forty-three Lamanites are said to have died (). In 87 B.C., a battle is said to have claimed the lives of over nineteen thousand Nephites and Lamanites. At one point in the history portrayed, some Mormon scholars estimate that the population described in Book of Mormon civilization(s) ranged between 300,000 and 1.5 million people.[2] For example, the Book of Mormon asserts specifically that in just one battle near the hill Cumorah about one hundred and thirty thousand soldiers were killed on one side alone. By 385 A.D., the number of Nephite soldiers killed is estimated to be close to a quarter million people.[2] The Jaredite civilization was likely much larger: the final war that destroyed the Jaredite civilization killed at least two million soldiers ().
The use and disputation of existing archaeological evidence
The Book of Mormon states that there were pre-Columbian peoples that were white, literate, had knowledge of Old World languages, and possessed Old World derived writing systems. (E.g. 1 Nephi et. seq.) They smelted metal and made tools and weapons of iron, steel, and brass. (E.g. Ether , ) They owned domesticated horses and cattle. They possessed chariots. (E.g. Alma ) The people covered the "entire land." The civilization described by these passages and scores of others in the ''Book of Mormon'' should yield certain types of discoveries in the pre-Colombian archaeological record.[2] The lack of evidence of the Book of Mormon civilizations is seen by some as being problematic for the Book of Mormon. LDS scholars answer that there is a growing body of evidence of the book's authenticity. These evidences, however, are not accepted by mainstream archaeologists. [32]
Based upon Book of Mormon population estimates, the civilizations described would be roughly the size of a few other archaeologically prominent civilizations—Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome and Maya—which also thrived at about the same time as putative Book of Mormon civilizations. These civilizations left numerous artifacts in the form of ruins, tombs, temples, pyramids, roads, arches, walls, frescos, statues, vases, coins, etc. Skeptics argue that if large-scale and long-lived civilizations such as those mentioned in the Book of Mormon had existed in the New World, then solid physical evidence of their remains should appear in the archaeological record of the Americas. Mormon scholars reply that evidence of these civilizations has indeed been found, and that it is simply not accepted as such by the mainstream archaeological community. LDS researchers point to settlement patterns that appear to correlate with those indicated in the Book of Mormon in both location and date. [2]
The challenge of determining a New World geographic location
There are no groups involved in primary research on Book of Mormon archaeology outside of the Mormon academic community. No archaeological finding, as yet, has been accepted by the non-Mormon archaeological community as indisputable evidence that the book has a historical connection to Native Americans.
The New World portion of the geographical record of the Book of Mormon does not easily conform to many of the settings proposed by various LDS researchers. LDS scholars have found the most plausible match to be the Mesoamerican Tehuantapec setting. Non-LDS researchers suggest that there are few, if any, definitive indicators within the text itself to consistently place it within any real-world setting proposed to date.[2]
Similar to Old World archaeology, the archaeological record of the Americas is incomplete and faces many challenges. Of the thousands of pre-Columbian archaeological sites presently known across the continent, only a small number have been documented in exhaustive detail. In addition, some archaeological sites have been compromised and even destroyed outright by ongoing natural processes and the encroachment of urbanization and agricultural land-use. A good example of this trend is the Early and Preclassic Mayan archaeological site of Kaminaljuyu. Of the hundreds of temple mounds that once existed there, most have been destroyed by the expansion of Guatemala City.[2]
Much of North American archaeology has been lost or misunderstood because of common misperceptions, stereotypes, and lack of preservation. For example, many are not aware of the existence of stone and mortar Maya cities in Mexico, structured stone and clay mortar pueblos of the Ancient Pueblo Peoples of the Southwest, or complex centers of flat-topped pyramidal platform mounds of the Mississippian culture in the Eastern United States.[36] Despite the existence of these complex cultures in North America, many indiscriminately identify the majority of Native Americans as migratory (hunters/gatherers and teepee or wigwam dwellers).
Book of Mormon compared to Biblical archaeology
Both LDS and non-LDS scholars compare the state of Book of Mormon archaeology with Biblical archaeology, with both groups acknowledging that the number of locatable places in the Book of Mormon pales when compared to the number found in the Bible. The advantage that Biblical archaeology has is that the geographical setting for the Bible is already known. LDS scholars point out that one challenge for establishing Book of Mormon archaeology in the New World is that ancient location names in the proposed Mesoamerican setting have not carried over to the present day and are therefore difficult to verify.[37]
Existing ancient records of the New World
Similar to frequent and massive losses of ancient writings in the Old World (in deliberate or accidental fires, in wars, earthquakes, floods, etc), much of the literature of the Pre-Columbian Maya was also destroyed by the Spanish when they conquered the region in the 1500s.[38] On this point, Michael Coe noted:
:'' "Nonetheless, our knowledge of ancient Maya thought must represent only a tiny fraction of the whole picture, for of the thousands of books in which the full extent of their learning and ritual was recorded, only four have survived to modern times (as though all that posterity knew of ourselves were to be based upon three prayer books and ''Pilgrim's Progress'').''"[2]
However, in addition to the four surviving pre-Columbian Maya codices mentioned by Coe, there are also a number of documents dating from the 16th century conquest and shortly after, in which indigenous scribes or Spanish interlocutors recorded facets of Maya (and other) historical accounts and beliefs.
The Maya civilization also left behind a vast corpus of inscriptions (upwards of ten thousand are known[40]) written in the Maya script, the earliest of which date from around the 3rd century BC with the majority written in the Classic Period (c. 250 - 900 AD).[41] Mayanist scholarship is now able to decipher a large number of these inscriptions. These inscriptions are mainly concerned with the activities of Mayan rulers and the commemoration of significant events, with the oldest known Long Count date corresponding to December 7, 36 B.C. being recorded on Chiapa de Corzo ''Stela 2'' in central Chiapas. [2] It has been claimed that none of these inscriptions make contact with events, places, rulers or timeline of Book of Mormon.[43]
Some LDS researchers use as supporting evidence ancient Mesoamerican accounts that appear to parallel events recorded in the Book of Mormon. [44]
As the state of archaeological knowledge of the Americas progresses, many interested scholars, both LDS and non-LDS, are evaluating each archaeological discovery for its probative value regarding the authenticity of the Book of Mormon, comparing the text of the book (animals, objects, place names, directions, etc.) with the archaeological record to see if they fit.
Joseph Smith's statements regarding Book of Mormon geography
Joseph Smith never specifically stated where the events depicted in the Book of Mormon took place, and the Book of Mormon itself states that less than "a hundredth part of the proceedings of this people" are included in the record ().
Smith's early statements indicated that he believed that the events described in the Book of Mormon took place on the North American continent. In a 1833 letter to N.C. Saxton, Smith wrote:
:''"The Book of Mormon is a record of the forefathers of our western tribes of Indians; having been found through the ministration of an holy angel, and translated into our own language by the gift and power [of] God, after having been hid up in the earth for the last fourteen hundred years, containing the word of God which was delivered unto them. By it we learn that our western tribes of Indians are descendants from that of Joseph that was sold into Egypt, and that the land [of] America is a promised land unto them, and unto it, all the tribes of Israel will come, with as many of the Gentiles as shall comply with the requisitions of the new covenant. But the tribe of Judah will return to old Jerusalem."''[45]
On June 4, 1834, during the Zion's Camp trek through Illinois, Smith stated that the group was "roving over the mounds of that once beloved people of the Lord, picking up their skulls & their bones."[46]
Smith later stated that he believed that the discovery of ancient Maya ruins on the Yucatán Peninsula in the late 1830s offered evidence to the Book of Mormon's authenticity. After reading about the accounts, Smith proclaimed the ruins were likely Nephite.[47] The first history of the Church was written in 1834 and 1835 by Oliver Cowdery, as a series of articles published serially in the Church's Messenger and Advocate. In this history, Cowdery stated that the final battle between the Nephites and the Lamanites occurred at the "Hill Cumorah" (not to be confused with the Hill Cumorah in New York, which was named significantly later than the hill referred to in the Book of Mormon). He also identified the Jaredites' final battle as occurring in the same area as the Nephite/Lamanite final battle. Since Smith was an editor of the Messenger and Advocate and likely approved the history, some believe it can be argued that this was his belief as well. In any case, evidence appears to show that Smith clearly did not know where the events took place.[48]
Proposed Book of Mormon geographical setting
As with Bible studies, considerable effort in Book of Mormon studies has been focused on establishing a credible real world setting for the narrative. ''The Book of Mormon'' narrative begins at Jerusalem and follows a straightforward route along the Gulf of Suez, then across the Arabian Peninsula eastward, then apparently across the Pacific Ocean to the New World. Joseph Smith said he acquired the Book of Mormon in the state of New York. Between these two bookends, the setting for the main Book of Mormon narrative (and the sub-narrative of the Jaredites as told in the Book of Ether) is not obvious. There are two major divisions of Book of Mormon archaeology: The Old World and the New World.
Old World setting
Lehi Trail
The Old World narrative portion has proven much more fruitful for Mormon scholars where there are only two separate, but overlapping theories on the sites described in Lehi's journey to the Ocean, and the identification of locations, such as Nahom, that most Mormon scholars consider to be a confirmed location. [49]
Recent trends in ''Book of Mormon'' archaeology have focused on the Arabian peninsula in the Middle East as the early accounts in the ''Book of Mormon'' do describe actual locations. Many Mormon researchers are confident that evidence found in Yemen and Oman correlates with the account of Lehi's family's journey southward from Jerusalem to a place on the Arabian peninsula called "Bountiful" by Lehi, where they built ships to come to the Americas.
Another Old World connection to the Book of Mormon occurred in 1997 when an ancient Judean stamp seal was identified as bearing the Hebrew form of the name "Malchiah son of Hammelech" .[50] It is argued that this ancient Judean stamp seal belongs to Mulek, a man who is mentioned in the Bible and briefly identified in the Book of Mormon as the only surviving son of Zedekiah, king of Judah.[51]
Lehi's Arabian journey
The Book of Mormon describes a 600 B.C. journey of two families from Jerusalem along the east side of the Red Sea, then east across the Arabian Peninsula from 600 B.C. to 592 B.C. The details and locations encountered on this journey are very clearly described in the text.[52] Through most of the twentieth century, no information was available to confirm the narrative of an encampment at a continually running stream (River of Laman) in a valley (of Lemuel) at the "fount of the Red Sea," of a burial at a place "called Nahom," of a "Bountiful" place on the east side of the Arabian Peninsula where multiple narrative details occur, or of any other detail of Lehi's Arabian journey. In the late twentieth and the early twenty-first centuries, LDS researchers have located plausible candidates for each of these places that they believe correlate with the route of Lehi's journey. Field studies and research on these and other locations related to this subject are ongoing.
Based on extensive text analysis and field work in Arabia, a number of LDS researchers have concluded that plausible locations exist for every important Arabian site mentioned along the route of Lehi's journey. These include, the 'borders near and nearer' the Red Sea, Shazer (where they stopped to hunt), the most fertile parts, the trees from which Nephi made his bow, Nahom, Nephi’s eastwardly trail to Bountiful, and Bountiful.
Some Mormon scholars believe that Lehi and his family interacted with locals during their travels, with some even suggesting that Lehi's group might have been in bondage to others in the area for a period of time.[53]
Lehi's Ancient home
Some speculate that Khirbet Beit Lei ("Ruin of the House of Lei") may have been a place where Lehi lived. In the area, there is a cave with ancient Hebrew writing that can be dated to the 6th Century B.C., and local legend holds that an ancient prophet named "Lei" lived and judged the people in the village at a time corresponding to the Book of Mormon narrative.
Some LDS historians and tourists believe this cave could have been the location where Lehi's sons stayed while trying to retrieve the Brass Plates, based on prophecies written on the walls of the cave. While there are some striking similarities and circumstantial evidence to support this view, there is no concrete evidence that "Lehi" and "Lei" are connected. Because the evidence is circumstantial, FARMS (Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies) has offered caution against tying the two together.[2]
The site remains a popular destination for LDS tourists.
People of Lihy
A tribe called the Lihyanites (“People of Lihy”) came into existence between the 6th and 4th century B.C in the area of al-Bad on the Arabian peninsula. This tribe came to power and ruled this area for over 300 years. Prior to approximately 600 B.C., this area was under control of the Dedanites. Some LDS researchers have speculated that the passage of Lehi through this area around 600 B.C. had an influence upon an existing tribe, and that they adopted his name.[2] The Lihyanite civilization left behinds ruins, including a temple, a ceremonial font and inscriptions. [2] LDS scholars caution, however, that "far too little is yet known about early Arabia to strengthen a link with the historical Lehi, and other explanations are readily available for every point advanced, attractive and intriguing as they may be to Latter-day Saints."[57]
Valley of Lemuel/River of Laman
The Wadi Tayyib al-Ism, 72 miles by trail from Aqaba, is considered to be a plausible location for the River of Laman by some LDS researchers.[58] Another LDS researcher, citing problems with the proposed Wadi Tayyib al-Ism location, indicates that there are a number of other sites along the Gulf of Eilat's eastern shoreline that meet the requirements for this location, such as one of the wadis near the shore at Bir Marsha.[59]
Nahom
Main articles: Nahom
The Book of Mormon states that Ishmael, the patriarch of the family that left with Lehi's, was buried "in the place which was called Nahom" early in the journey from Jerusalem to Bountiful. It was also at Nahom that the travelers made a significant change in the direction of their travel from "south-southeast" to "nearly eastward." It is significant that "Nahom" is one of the few places mentioned in the Book of Mormon that was not named by Lehi, thus suggesting that this was a pre-existing place name. This Nahom has been equated by a number of LDS scholars with a location in Yemen referred to as "NHM" (Vowels in ancient Hebrew are spoken but not always written [60]). The name NHM is referred to in inscriptions found on altars dated to about 600 B.C.E.. The altars were found in a location consistent with the location at which Lehi's party would have had to change their route toward the east. The modern name of the location is "Nihm" and it is known as an ancient burial site and is south-southeast of Jerusalem. A turn nearly due east at this location (as described in the Book of Mormon) would bring Lehi's group to the place Bountiful on the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula".[61][62]
There are a variety of challenges to the claim that Nahom correlates with NHM. Some claim that Joseph Smith might have learned of NHM from existing 19th century sources.[63] Some suggest that either the vowels or consonants between the word ''Nahom'' and various derivatives of the root ''NHM'' do not represent an accurate correlation.[64]
Bountiful
Main articles: Bountiful (Book of Mormon)
LDS scholars believe they have located several plausible locations for the ''land'' Bountiful, as well as the ''place'' Bountiful where the Book of Mormon says Lehi camped and the harbour where it says Nephi built his ship for the purpose of crossing the ocean to come to the Americas. The location of Salalah was proposed by Hugh Nibley and is supported by Lynn and Hope Hilton. [2] The location at Khor Rori is supported by Potter and Wellington of the Nephi Project.[66] The location of Wadi Sayq (west of Salalah near the border of Yemen) and it's associated harbor Khor Kharfot is supported by Warren Aston.[67]
In the early 1950s while excavating the harbor of Khor Rori (40 kilometers east of Salalah), American archaeologist Wendell Phillips discovered multiple plates made of Bronze, engraved with a Talmudic script and Arabian Shahri. [68]
New World setting
Map showing the possible lands and sites of the Book of Mormon in Mesoamerica (speculative)
The New World setting for the Book of Mormon narrative has been placed everywhere from South and Central America to the Finger Lakes region in New York (possibly referring to the Mound Builders), which some equate to the fortifications described in the Book of Mormon.
Hemispheric Geography Model
The dominant assumption among Latter Day Saints has been that the New World portion narrative's setting encompasses all of the Americas, and that The Lamanites are the "principal ancestors of the American Indians."[69] The Book of Mormon speaks of a narrow neck of land, and it has been an intuitive assumption for readers that the Isthmus of Panama fits this requirement.[2]
Limited Geography Model
Main articles: Limited Geography Model (Book of Mormon)
The Limited Geography Model, formally proposed by LDS scholars in 1984, states that the text of the Book of Mormon narrative itself supports a limited region only hundreds of miles in dimension and that other people were present in the New World at the time of Lehi's arrival.[2] One book compiled by prominent Mormon scholar John Sorenson has more than 400 pages of possible location theories placing the Book of Mormon events everywhere from the Finger Lakes region of the Northeast United States to Chile.[72] However, all theories acknowledge that there are no existing landmarks that will identify, without dispute, the places in the New World portion of the Book of Mormon narrative.
After constructing an internal geographical model for the Book of Mormon and then comparing it to all of the proposed geographical regions, most LDS scholars now agree that there is only a single plausible match with the geography in Mesoamerica centered around the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. This area includes the area of current day Guatemala, the southern Mexico States of Tabasco, Chiapas, Oaxaca, Veracruz, and the surrounding area.[2].
The Limited Geography Model has been critiqued by a number of scholars, who suggest that it is not an adequate explanation for Book of Mormon geography and that the locations, events, flora and fauna described in it do not precisely match.[74][75] In response to one of these critiques in 1994, Sorenson reaffirmed his proposal for a limited Mesoamerican geographical setting.[76]
A limited geographical setting for the Book of Mormon has been suggested by many church leaders, including Joseph Smith, Orson Pratt, Parley P. Pratt, and B. H. Roberts.[77]
Alternative settings
Some Latter Day Saint scholars have suggested that it is possible that the events recorded in the Book of Mormon took place somewhere other than the Western Hemisphere. For example, one scholar has suggested that many Book of Mormon events could plausibly be placed in the Malay Peninsula.[78] This author has acknowledged that consideration of his "Malay hypothesis" by LDS scholars would require Book of Mormon archaeology to "undergo a radical paradigm shift—one that many would consider quite far-fetched."
Efforts to correlate Book of Mormon cultures with New World cultures
LDS scholars have used the Mesoamerican geographical model to correlate Book of Mormon cultures with known cultures in the region. While such comparisons are performed in order to determine the plausibility of these correlations, it should be noted that neither the text of the Book of Mormon or the scholars who support it make any definitive claim that the Book of Mormon describes the Olmec or Mayan civilizations.
The Jaredites and the Olmec
Many LDS scholars believe that the Olmec civilization matches the appropriate time and place to be identified with the Jaredite civilization in The Book of Mormon. The book of Mormon places the Jaredite civilization in the new world at the time of the Tower of Babel (estimated to be between 3100 BC and 2200 BC). The specific date of arrival in the New World is not identified. The Jaredite civilization is said to have been completely destroyed as the result of a civil war at the approximate time that Lehi's party is said to have arrived in the New World (approximately 590 B.C.).
The Olmec civilization flourished in Mesoamerica during the Preclassic period, dating from 1200 BC to about 400 BC. The Olmec civilization suddenly disintegrated for unknown reasons, although archaeological evidence clearly indicates a definite Olmec influence within the Maya civilization that followed. Although the Olmec civilization ended, there are indications that some of the Olmec people survived and interacted with other cultures.[79]
The Lamanites and The Maya
The Maya civilization has been suggested as the Lamanite culture depicted in the Book of Mormon. There is substantial debate about whether the material and linguistic culture of these civilizations corresponds to the descriptions in the Book of Mormon.
Establishing connections between ruins of the Mayan civilization (for example, Quirigua, Kaminaljuyu, and Tikal in Guatemala, and Copán in Honduras, and Palenque in Mexico) and the cities and civilizations mentioned in the Book of Mormon has been difficult for LDS scholars on a number of fronts. Perhaps the most significant issue is the dating. By Old-World standards, the Mayan ruins are relatively recent; conventional archeology places the pinnacle of Mayan civilization several centuries after the final events in the Book of Mormon account. LDS scholars suggest that the Book of Mormon record follows the Nephite civilization until its destruction, but the Lamanite civilization remained (possibly the Maya). This would explain the more modern ruins that are from a much later time period.
The standard construction practice employed by the Maya was to build new structures on top of older structures. Many older structures are either contained within or their rubble is buried under the structures which were built later.[80]
The Nephites
No civilization has been identified as correlating with the Nephite culture, and it is postulated by LDS scholars that the Nephite culture was probably characterized by unpretentious Christian discipleship inconsistent with impressive monuments and stone artisanship. As such, LDS scholars have postulated several views, one view holds that a Nephite culture may have existed within the greater Lamanite (usually Maya) culture. Another view holds that the events surrounding some portions of the Book of Mormon may have occurred in the Great Lakes Region in ancient times. The Golden Plates were reported to have been found near this general area and there are accounts of long journeys separating the Lamanite and Nephite cultures in the Book of Mormon. There is also evidence of an extensive highway system running the length of the Appalachian Mountains in the Eastern United States from Upstate New York to Georgia which had been used by Native Americans going far back into ancient times. It remains unknown if the proper names or language used to describe Christ relied upon the Hebrew Language or used an entirely different term than the Judeo-Christian name "Jesus Christ". The Book of Mormon is presently claimed to have been translated from an entirely different language than that spoken in the Holy Land.
It should be noted that according to the Book of Mormon the Nephite civilization was severely damaged at the time of Christ, with many major cities being completely destroyed. There is a 300 year period in the Book of Mormon after Christ arrival which there is little mentioned about the Nephite civilization. Whether the people re-built the damaged cities, or migrated is not entirely known. The migration of the Nephites to rebuilt else where would have profound impacts on the study of the Book of Mormon.
Many discredit the notion that the Nephite civilization took place in the great lakes region because it does not match up geographically with Book of Mormon accounts. Before Christ appears to the Nephites, the Book of Mormon tells of three days of horrendous literal darkness and earth quakes. The account of this destruction and particularly the darkness that "could be felt" has led many to believe that this darkness was caused by a volcanic eruption. Since there are no active Volcanoes on the eastern half of North America it seems unlikely under this view that it is where the Book of Mormon took place. While the golden plates were discovered in the great lakes region it is thought that they were brought there by Moroni after wandering in the wilderness for many years trying to escape from the Lamanites
Systems of measuring time (calendars)
All of the dates given in the Book of Mormon are stated in terms of the Nephite calendar. The system of dates used by the Lamanites is not stated. The highest numbered month mentioned is the eleventh, and the highest numbered day is the twelfth, but the total number of months in a year and the number of days in a month is not specified.[81]
Most North American tribes relied upon a calendar of 13 months, since there are 13 distinct cycles of the moon each year. Seasonal Rounds and ceremonies were performed each moon. Months were counted in the days between phase cycles of the moon itself. Calendar Systems in use in North America during this historical period relied on this simple system.[82]
One of the more distinctive features shared among pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations is the use of an extensive system of inter-related calendars. The epigraphic and archaeological record for this practice dates back at least 2,500 years, by which time it appears to have been well-established.[83] The most widespread and significant of these calendars was the 260-day calendar, formed by combining 20 named days with 13 numerals in successive sequence (13 × 20 = 260).[2] Another system of perhaps equal antiquity is the 365-day calendar, approximating the solar year, formed from 18 'months' × 20 named days + 5 additional days. These systems and others are found in societies of that era such as the Olmec, Zapotec, Mixe-Zoque, Mixtec and Maya (whose system of Maya calendars are widely regarded as the most intricate and complex among them) reflected the vigesimal (base 20) numeral system and other numbers, such as 13 and 9.
Although the number 7 is a co-factor in some Mesoamerican calendars (such as the Mayan 819-day calendar, formed from 13 × 9 × 7 days), none of the known calendar systems used a 7-day count as an exclusive or prominent base.
Many North American Cultures considered the numbers 7 and 13 to be particularly sacred. 13 was associated with the earth itself because it represented the cycles of the moon each year, and the number 7 was the lunar cycle midpoint between the seasons of summer and winter. North American Tribes experienced yearly fluctations in the availability of various food sources throughout the year, and the number 7 corresponded in MesoAmerican and North American Cultures with the ripening of Maize crops, since the cultivars of ''Zea Mays'' (corn) grown by these cultures matured in the 7th lunar cycle of each seasonal round (year).
Methods of punishment
The Book of Mormon makes reference to various forms of punishment, a number of which include capital punishment for certain offenses. Alma refers to his son Shiblon as having been "stoned." ()[85]
The Aztecs are known to have stoned thieves and dishonest merchants in the public square.[86]
Warfare
LDS scholar Hugh Nibley once stated that approximately one-third of the content of the Book of Mormon deals with matters related to warfare[87] LDS researchers also suggest that the Book of Mormon's account of large-scale warfare has been confirmed by findings in ancient Mesoamerica.[88]
Timing of wars
According to the Nephite calendar, wars occurred mostly at the end or beginning of the year, starting with the tenth month and ending with the fifth month, with peak fighting occurring between the eleventh and second months. The sixth through ninth months do not record any significant battles. LDS scholars correlate this timing with specific seasons of the year, with the end and beginning of the year corresponding to the most ideal time for war. It is suggested that the end of the year was December 21st or 22nd, the date of the winter solstice. The Book of Mormon records thirty-two battles as having occurred at the end and beginning of the calendar year.[81] A description of events related to one battle at the end of the year refers to the "heat of the day," indicating that the end of the year was a warm season ().[90]
Military fortifications
There are ten instances in the Book of Mormon in which cities are described as having defensive fortifications. For example, Alma 52:2 describes how the Lamanites "sought protection in their fortifications" in the city of Mulek ().
Archaeologists have noted the existence of ancient Mesoamerican defensive fortifications. [91] Military fortifying berms are found in the Yucatan Peninsula, [92][93] in the region appropriate to where LDS scholars suggest that the wars described in the ''Book of Mormon'' could plausibly have occurred.
Some LDS researchers suggest that structures similar to those described by the ''Book of Mormon'' are also found on some Native American mounds in Ohio, New York, and in the rest of the New England region. These mounds and their fortifications were a topic of intense controversy and discussion during the early years of the 19th century. However, beyond the similarities, no indisputable links of these structures to ''Book of Mormon'' civilizations have been found.
Efforts to correlate ruins and artifacts
Ruins
The Maya ruin known as Lamanai located in present-day Belize has attracted some attention from LDS proponents, who note the similarity of its name with ''Lamanite'' (or the Hebrew language equivalent). The origin of this placename is known to Mayanist scholarship as the name used by the local Maya peoples, transcribed in 16th-century Spanish documents. The name is confirmed by the decipherments of Classical era (ca. 250–900 A.D.) inscriptions at the site, where it appears as ''lam'an'ain'', a Classic Maya expression meaning "(place of) submerged crocodile(s)".[94]
Artifacts
Izapa Stela 5
Main articles: Izapa Stela 5
In the early 1950s, M. Wells Jakeman of the BYU Department of Archaeology suggested that a complicated scene carved on Stela 5 in Izapa was a depiction of a Book of Mormon event called Lehi's dream, which features a vision of the tree of life.[95] This interpretation is disputed by other Mormon and non-Mormon scholars.[96]
La Venta Stela 3
LDS researchers point out that carved monuments exist that purportedly depict people with Semitic features. One such artifact is La Venta Stela 3, which depicts two people facing each other. One of the two people depicted has a "striking beard and beaked nose," which has caused some researchers to refer to him as "Uncle Sam." [97]
Copan Stela B
There has been considerable debate regarding whether Copan Stela B depicts elephants or macaws. [2][2]
Flora and fauna
Animals
Horses
Horses are mentioned fourteen times in the ''Book of Mormon''. Three of these references are contained within prophetic statements (such as those of Isaiah) which do not directly describe events related to Book of Mormon people. There are four instances in which horses and chariots are mentioned in the same verse.[100] No specific mention is made of what the horses were used for, or if they were used with the chariots in some manner. It has been speculated by some LDS scholars that horses may have been used for food.[101] The use of horses for food is also implied from the context of , which lists horses along with other food animals:"[t]he Nephites...having reserved for themselves provisions, and horses and cattle, and flocks of every kind, that they might subsist for the space of seven years."
Despite depictions by LDS artists and assumptions by some authors, horses are never mentioned as being ridden or used in battle. Words such as “ride,” “saddle,” and “horseman” (and their variants) do not appear in the Book of Mormon, leaving some people to speculate that these animals are something other than what we call “horses” today (see Horses in the Book of Mormon).
Horses evolved in the Americas (see Evolution of the horse), and evidence has been found showing that pre-historic horses were hunted by the Paleo-Indian Clovis culture who appeared in North America approximately 13,500 years ago.[102][103] These horses co-existed among the other Pleistocene megafauna, including the various species of mammoths, which are a genus of the elephant family, and the mastodon which is a more distant relative of the elephant. The pre-historic species of New World horses became extinct at the end of the last Ice Age, along with the mammoths and 70% of the large mammal species in North America (see New World Pleistocene Extinctions). The dates of regional extinctions vary between approximately 10,000[104] and 12,500[105] years ago. Horses were not re-introduced to Americas until they were brought to the Caribbean by Christopher Columbus on his second journey to the New World in 1493[106]. Horses were first brought by the Cortés expedition to the North American continent, to areas of present-day Mexico and New Mexico, in 1519[107].
Elephants
Elephants are mentioned twice in a single verse in the ''Book of Ether''.[108] The time period corresponding to this verse would be approximately 2500 B.C. Elephants, in particular, are mentioned as being "useful unto man." Elephants are never mentioned as having been present during the period of time during which the Nephite and Lamanite civilizations are said to have existed.
Scholars agree that mastadons and mammoths once lived in the New World. The main point of contention is how late these animals were present before becoming extinct.[2] Current archaeological data suggests that elephants were hunted to extinction by early inhabitants of the New World sometime around 8,000 BC.
There are instances of stories preserved orally by Native Americans which some LDS scholars believe may describe elephants. One such story is related by the Naskapi Indian Tribe, located in Canada. The story concerns a monster from the Naskapi tradition called ''Katcheetohuskw'', which is described as being very large, with large ears, teeth and a long nose.[110] Similar versions of "monster" legends related by other tribes refer to a monster called ''Ursida'', which is described as more of a large, stiff-legged bear rather than a mammoth. The story of the "monster bear" is considered by some scholars to be purely mythical. [111]
Cattle
References to ''cattle'' are made seven times in the Book of Mormon, with two of these appearing within doctrinal or prophetic statements. Four instances refer to cattle being among the possessions of the Nephites, without stating the manner in which they were used. One instance found in the book of Ether states specifically that the Jaredites used cattle for food ().
There has been no evidence recovered that Old World cattle (members of the genus ''Bos'') ever inhabited the New World until European contact in the sixteenth century AD. However, in King James English, which is ostensibly the language the Book of Mormon was translated into, "cattle" meant "any domesticated quadruped"[112] or, in other words, "livestock".
Swine
Swine are referred to twice in the Book of Mormon. One of these instances in 3 Nephi 14:6 is in the context of a point of doctrine being taught and does not refer to the animal actually being present in the Nephite culture.[113] The Nephites were said to be living the Law of Moses,[114] and therefore would have been prohibited from eating swine.
The second instance in Ether 9:8 specifically mentions swine as being "useful for the food of man." Since the Jaredites are supposed to have left the Old World at the time of the Tower of Babel (prior to the time of Moses), they would not have been subject to the Law of Moses.
There have not been any remains, references, artwork, tools, or any other evidence suggesting that swine were ever present in the pre-entrada New World outside of the Book of Mormon. However, ancient authors would not be familiar with modern classification and could easily have applied the category to a related New World animal (such as the peccary).
Cureloms and cumoms
The Book of Mormon mentions two unidentified animals in the Book of Ether. These animals are referred to as ''cureloms'' and ''cumoms'' and were identified as being "useful unto man," although the manner in which they were useful is not specified [115] LDS scholars note that the ''cureloms'' and ''cumons'' are considered more "useful unto man" than horses, which are mentioned in the same verse.[116]
Plants
Grains
Grains are mentioned twenty-eight times in the Book of Mormon. Corn is mentioned three times in the Book of Mormon as a crop that was planted and harvested by the Nephites. Barley is mentioned four times and wheat is mentioned once. [117]
The introduction of domesticated modern barley and wheat to the New World was made by Europeans sometime after 1492. Archaeological evidence discovered on the North American continent in Arizona, Illinois and Oklahoma shows that a variety of pre-Columbian barley existed and was cultivated in the New World.[117] No evidence of pre-Columbian barley has been discovered in Mesoamerica.
Other crops
Two unknown crops referred to as ''sheum'' and ''neas'' are mentioned once in Mosiah 9:9.[2] Although they are mentioned in the same context as corn, wheat and barley, it is not clear that they were grains. LDS scholars point out that "the ancient Assyrian term ''sheum'' was used at various times to refer to barley, grains generally, and even pine nuts."[120]
Technology
Wheeled vehicles
A wheeled figurine, probably from the Veracruz area during the Classic period. Height: 7 in (18 cm).
The ''Book of Mormon'' mentions the use of chariots as a mode of transportation five times.[121] The "chariots" mentioned in the Book of Mormon are not referred to as having been used in battle.
There is no extant archaeological evidence to support the use of ''wheeled'' vehicles in Mesoamerica. Many parts of ancient Mesoamerica were not suitable for wheeled transport, although there is evidence that Mesoamericans had knowledge of the wheel, as shown by the discovery of wheeled toys left in tombs.[122] LDS scholars point out that the Hebrew root translated as "chariot" may also refer to a "litter, portable couch" or human-borne "sedan" chair without wheels.[123][124]
Some scholars believe that the absence of wheeled vehicles places the ''Book of Mormon'' at odds with the known archaeological record. LDS researchers respond with a comparison to Biblical archaeology, suggesting that though there are no archaeological evidences that any of the numerous ancient American civilizations used wheeled transportation, no chariot fragments have been found in the Middle East dating to Biblical times[125]. Although no fragments of chariots have been found in the Middle East, there are many images of ancient chariots on pottery and frescos and in many sculptures of mediterranean origin, thus confirming their existence in those societies. The complete absence of these images among the hundreds of frescoes, hundreds of thousands of pieces of decorated pottery and pre-Columbian artwork found in the New World does not support the existence of Old World style chariots in the New World.
Some have suggested that the absence of wheeled modes of transportation in the Americas could be due to a lack of draft animals (horse, bulls, camels, etc) on the American continent during pre-Columbian times. LDS scholars note that the usage of the word ''chariot'' in the Book of Mormon does not necessitate their dependence upon the use of draft animals.
Referencing the discovery of wheeled chariot "toys" in Mayan funerary settings, William J. Hamblin has suggested that the ''chariots'' mentioned in the Book of Mormon might refer to mythic or cultic wheeled vehicles.[126]
Recording records on metal plates
Main articles: Golden Plates
the Pyrgi Tablets
In addition to the "golden" plates from which the Book of Mormon was translated from, the narrative itself also mentions other writings recorded on metal plates. Archaeologists have long suggested either that ancient cultures did not keep records on metal plates, or that it was not practical. The difficulty of creating records on metal plates is referenced in the Book of Mormon narrative itself, in which Jacob states: "[A]nd I cannot write but a little of my words, because of the difficulty of engraving our words upon plates."[2]
Recent discoveries have provided some evidence that this was an established method for recording information considered important.[128] As a point of comparison, the oldest known Biblical verses preserved in archaeology are three verses from the Book of Numbers, chapter 6, verses 24-26, that were on a pair of small silver amulets found by Israeli archaeologist Gabriel Barkay at Ketef Hinnom and dated to the 6th century BC, during the same time period the Book of Mormon events are purported to have taken place.[129] However, no records have been found on metal plates to date which approach the size of the record in the Book of Mormon and no such records have been found on the American continents.
Discussion of the metal plates and their use in recent years has involved the weight and type of metal that these plates would have been made of. For a discussion of such topics, see Golden Plates and Reformed Egyptian.
Metals
Iron and steel
The Book of Mormon states that metals, including iron and steel (an iron alloy), were produced and used among the Book of Mormon peoples. It has been pointed out that there is little evidence of steel production in central and southern America, and would have been difficult to produce steel in those locales. Iron and steel are mentioned together in the Bible.[130]
LDS scholars note that the word ''steel'' could have been an approximate translation, actually referring to another type of metal entirely for which there would have been no word in 19th century America (see Tumbaga and similar copper and iron based metals). ''Steel'' is only mentioned in three verses (, , ) in the Book of Mormon, all before 360 B.C. (by the book's chronology) and could have referred to an Old-World skill that was forgotten.
Possible evidence exists that iron and steel metallurgy took place among North American indigenous groups. Two internet sources, neither affiliated with the LDS, present a few sites that may provide possible evidence. One unusual site in Central Texas presents a hypothesized furnace carved directly into the bedrock of an ancient creekbed, and includes hypothesized blow holes manufactured also in the limestone creekbed. [131] Several iron bird effigies and an elephant effigy are presented to strengthen the hypothesis. The artifacts and smelting facilities have been found in the same context as Clovis and possible pre-Clovis stone artifacts. Clovis technology flourished in the Americas from 11,050 to 10,800 14C yr B.P., a little over 200 years, and then suddenly vanishes from the archeological record. This technology, and previous, pre-Clovis technologies existed many millennia before the traditional view of when the events described the Book of Mormon are said to have taken place.
Another website covers not only possible sites in the East, but also provides a small amount of evidence that may indicate that Anasazi or Hohokam tribes in the Southwest performed iron smelting. Other excavations in North America have uncovered what were once possibly iron smelting sites, and archaeological evidence including layering techniques support that they may have existed from pre-historic times (prior to the Hopewellian culture).[132] However, radiocarbon dating evidence for these sites places them at the beginning of the 18th century (1700s). Other researchers believe that these smelting sites were the work of Ohio's immigrants of European descent, although there is no evidence of European settlers in the area at the time.[133] Frontiersmen and trappers were not common, but not unheard of, and are likely candidates for the builders of the furnaces under this theory.
Brass
Brass is mentioned numerous times in the Book of Mormon. Most of these references refer to "plates of brass" obtained in the Old World. Both the Nephites and the Jaredites are referred to as having used brass in the New World.
Other possible metals
A material called ''ziff'' is mentioned Mosiah 11:3 in the same context as gold, silver, copper, brass and iron. The manner in which this material is used is not specified, although the context of the verse implies that it has value. Some LDS scholars have speculated that word "''ziff''" comes from the Hebrew root ''zîw'', which indicates ""splendor, brightness, or brilliance." This might suggest a metal or alloy of metals such as tumbaga or electrum.[134]
Swords
Aztec warriors as shown in the 16th century Florentine Codex (from Vol. IX). Note that each warrior is brandishing a maquahuitl.
The Book of Mormon makes numerous references to swords and their use in battle. There is a single verse which implies that the Jaredites had swords made of metal. When the remnants of the Jaredite's final battle were discovered, the Book of Mormon narrative states that "the blades thereof were cankered with rust."[135]
Warriors in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica are known to have used wooden clubs with blade-like obsidian flakes.[136]
Systems of exchange
The word ''coin'' does not appear in the primary text of any edition of the Book of Mormon. In 1981, a chapter heading with the words "Nephite coinage set forth" was added. The Book of Mormon describes a system of exchange based on measures of precious metals.
In the critical video ''Jesus Christ/Joseph Smith'', a statement is made that Book of Mormon coins "were noted as being common in Joseph’s writings."[137]
The overall use of metal in ancient America seems to have been extremely limited. A more common exchange medium in Mesoamerica were cacao beans.[138]
Silk
The Book of Mormon mentions the use of ''silk'' six times, with two of these instances referring to things seen in a vision by Nephi. The term ''silk'' as used in the Old World context designates a material that is created from the cocoon of the Asian moth ''Bombyx mori''. There are several materials which were used in Mesoamerica which the Spanish called "silk" upon their arrival.[139] The inhabitants of Mexico are known to have used the fiber spun by a wild silkworm to create a fabric.[12]
Legends
Creation of the world
Existing documents (such as the ''Popol Vuh'' documents of the Quiché people) provide some further historical insights into the creation accounts of Mesoamerican peoples (by three feathered serpents). Coe's description of the creation account in the Popol Vuh describes the creation of the K'iche' Maya by the forefather gods Tepew and Q'ukumatz. These gods are said to have "brought forth the earth from a watery void," after which they placed plants and animals upon it. The gods then created "man-like" creatures from mud, but these creatures did not endure. Wooden creatures later appeared but were destroyed by the Gods, and were replaced by men made of flesh. The account describes how these men of flesh "turned to wickedness and were annihilated as black rains fell and a great flood swept the earth." Sometime after this destruction, the true K'iche' Maya were created from maize dough, becoming the ancestors of the Maya that we know today.[2]
Some argue that these accounts fail to resemble the creation account version offered in the Bible.
Another document of the Quiché, the ''Title of the Lords of Totonicapán'', significantly resembles the Biblical story of creation. This document has obvious influence from Spanish Catholicism, but its differences to both the Popol Vuh and the Biblical story are intriguing. In the first day, God created the great light. On the second day, the nine levels of the sky received life. In the third day God created all the mountains and plains, the trees and the rocks. And so on.
One interesting point is made when Lucifer, "combined with his sinful companions", rebel against God. God then sees necessary to cast them out of "the house of the sky".
God then creates man from the materials of the earth. The man refers to God as "Mother and Father". The man is also sent two comforters.
Following a detailed description of Cane and Abel, the Flood, and the Exodus, the Quiché state specifically that they are "descendants of the Israelites, of Moses. Of the tribes of Israel from where our grandparents and parents left. They came from where the sun leaves [from the West], there in Babyolonia where they celebrated rituals with the lord Nacxit; such was the origin of our lineage".
The rest of the proceeding story is similar in many regards to the account of the Popol Vuh. In several instances, the Quiché regarding themselves specifically as Israelites.
Ancient American culture heroes
There are many legends of ancient "culture heroes" appearing in the New World. American historian and ethnologist Hubert Howe Bancroft lists some of these in his 1875 work ''The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America (Vol. 5)'': Quetzalcoatl in Cholula, Votan in Chiapas, Wixepecocha in Oajaca, Cukulcan in Yucatan, Gukumatz in Guatemala, Yiracocha in Peru, Sume and Paye-Tome in Brazil, and Bochica in Colombia.[142] According to Bancroft:
:''They are all described as white, bearded men, generally clad in long robes; appearing suddenly and mysteriously upon the scene of their labors, they at once set about improving the people by instructing them in useful and ornamental arts, giving them laws, exhorting them to practice brotherly love and other Christian virtues, and introducing a milder and better form of religion; having accomplished their mission, they disappear as mysteriously and unexpectedly as they came; and finally, they are apotheosized and held in great reverence by a grateful posterity.''[143]
Quetzalcoatl
The ancient Mesoamerican legend of Quetzalcoatl, depicted in some versions as "the bearded white god", is interpreted by some Latter-day Saints as a depiction of the actual visit of Jesus to the Americas as related and foretold 600 years before his coming in the Book of Mormon. Other students of ancient Mesoamerica do not accept this claim for several reasons: Quetzalcoatl, the Feathered Serpent deity, is depicted in Mesoamerican art dated several centuries before Jesus. The King Quetzalcoatl who promised to return to Mexico dated almost 1,000 years after the life of Jesus.[144] Finally, Quetzalcoatl may not have been discussed as either bearded or white before the intervention of the Spaniards. LDS scholars point out that part of the reason Hernan Cortes so easily conquered the Aztecs was that he fit the pre-existent Aztec conception of Quetzalcoatl, and thus the Aztecs hesitated to resist.
One modern interpretation of Mesoamerican mythology and astronomy has recast Quetzalcoatl, as well as the god Xolotl, as symbols of the planet Venus, whose appearance in the dawn and sunset sky was crucial to the measurements of the Maya calendar. The "return" of Quetzalcoatl, they claim, was a metaphor of Venus' appearance, indicating a new temporal cycle.
Smithsonian statement regarding the Book of Mormon
The Smithsonian Institute issued an official statement in 1996 and again in 1998 that it did not consider the Book of Mormon to be an authoritative reference for use in archaeological research.[145]
During the early 1980s, reports circulated in LDS culture that the Book of Mormon was being used by the Smithsonian to guide primary archaeological research. This rumor was brought to the attention of Smithsonian directors who, in 1996, sent a form letter to inquiring parties stating that the Smithsonian did not use the Book of Mormon to guide any research, and included a list of specific reasons Smithsonian archaeologists considered the Book of Mormon historically unlikely (some of which referred to things which are not even mentioned in the Book of Mormon).[146] In 1998, the Smithsonian revised the form letter they sent in response to this issue to take a less controversial stance,[147] specifically replacing detailed allegations of the non-historicity of the Book of Mormon with a simple statement that the Book of Mormon has not been used by the Smithsonian in any form of archaeological research. Mormon scholars suggest this may have been because the 1996 letter contradicts some aspects of research published by Smithsonian staff members; Non-LDS scholars note that the Smithsonian has not retracted any of its previous statements, and feel that the response was toned down to avoid negative public relations with Mormons. Terryl Givens suggests that the change in the statement was "in all likelihood a product of controversy-avoidance."[2] Some Mormon scholars speculate that the statement may have been revised because some of the reasons listed are considered controversial or even dubious (for reasons unrelated to the Book of Mormon) by some mainstream historians.
See also
★
★ Dighton Rock
★ Izapa Stela 5
★ Khirbet Beit Lei
★ Linguistics and the Book of Mormon
★ Los Lunas Decalogue Stone
★ Newport Tower
★ Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact
★ Reformed Egyptian
★ Archaeology of Israel
★ Biblical archaeology
★ '' --on-line archive includes articles on Archeology and BoM
Notes
1. This has been an implicit consensus among all major LDS scholars since the publication of the Book of Mormon. For a general statement involving the only major theories and their history see a summary from BYU's website
2.
3. Faust states, "It is important to know what the Book of Mormon is not. It is not primarily a history, although much of what it contains is historical ... George Q. Cannon stated that 'the Book of Mormon is not a geographical primer. It was not written to teach geographical truths. What is told us of the situation of the various lands or cities … is usually simply an incidental remark connected with the doctrinal or historical portions of the work.' (''Juvenile Instructor'', Jan. 1890, p. 18.) What, then, is the Book of Mormon? It is confirming evidence of the birth, life, and crucifixion of Jesus and of his work as the Messiah and the Redeemer. Nephi writes about the Book of Mormon: 'All ye ends of the earth, hearken unto these words and believe in Christ; and if ye believe not in these words believe in Christ. And if ye shall believe in Christ ye will believe in these words, for they are the words of Christ.'" (2 Ne. 33:10.)
4.
5. ; An Introduction to the Study of the Book of Mormon James M Sjodahl Sjodahl also suggested that the Jaredite population may not have been completely destroyed.
6. ; A Guide to the Study of the Book of Mormon, , William E, Berrett, Department of Education of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ,
7. ; The Book of Mormon and the Ruins: The Main Issues, , Hugh W, Nibley, Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, ,
8.
9.
10.
11. A gallery and description of these paintings may be found at The Book of Mormon Paintings of Arnold Friberg
12.
13.
14.
15. New World Archaeological Foundation, online collections at BYU.
16. Citing the lack of specific New World geographic locations to search, Michael D. Coe, a prominent Mesoamerican archaeologist and Professor Emeritus of Anthropology at Yale University, writes (in a 1973 volume of Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought): "As far as I know there is not one professionally trained archaeologist, who is not a Mormon, who sees any scientific justification for believing [the historicity of The Book of Mormon], and I would like to state that there are quite a few Mormon archaeologists who join this group".
17. Mormons and Archaeology: An Outside View, , Michael D, Coe, Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, Michael Coe notes, "There can be no question that the BYU sponsored New World Archaeological Foundation's program has been an unqualified success. Its twenty years of excavations and exploration in Chiapas have put that state on the archaeological map and have established one of the longest and best archaeological sequences for any part of the New World. Credit for this goes to the foresight of [Thomas Stewart] Ferguson and the original directors, but especially to the first-class [LDS] archaeologists who have carried out the program. First and foremost among them, I would name Gareth W. Lowe, who has been field director for a number of years and who has established himself as the outstanding expert in the field of Formative Mesoamerica. And full praise must be given to the generosity and wisdom of the [LDS] Church leadership in providing financial backing for the foundation. 'Mormon archaeology' is no longer something that brings chuckles in Gentile circles."
18. See the Introduction to the Book of Mormon
19. One of the more vocal challengers to the DNA vs. The Book of Mormon issue is Dr. Thomas W. Murphy.
20.
21. Geneticists have noted the difficulties in using genetics in this area for a variety of reasons. Some of these are our lack of knowledge concerning Sariah's descent (or others' in Lehi's party), have access to DNA from this period (600 BC Israel), or know what other groups would have intermarried with these groups (or in what numbers). For more information see DNA and the Book of Mormon: A Phylogenetic Perspective, , Michael F, Whiting, Journal of Book of Mormon Studies,
22. Not having the ancient Israelite gene for comparison and the inability for DNA testing to link some Jewish groups that are known to be related, see Addressing Questions surrounding the Book of Mormon and DNA Research, , John M, Butler, FARMS Review, 2006 .
23. 1998 "Trinity Journal," an article entitled "Mormon Scholarship, Apologetics, and Evangelical Neglect: Losing the Battle and Not Knowing It?"
24.
25. See for example Jarom 1:8 discussing advanced machinery, Mosiah 8:5 and Mosiah 25:5 discussing semi-literateness of the Nephites] and Helaman 3:8 and 16 that discusses the heavy population of the Lehite peoples. Similar references may be found about the Jaredites, for which the reader is referred to the Book of Ether [1]
26. Under the Banner of Heaven, , Jon, Krakauer, Doubleday, , ISBN 0-385-50951-0
27. Are the Mormon Scriptures Reliable?, , Diane E, Wirth, FARMS Review, 1990 "Joseph Smith indicated that truth will yet spring from the earth, and I expect we will see things in the future that will further substantiate to the "doubting Thomas" that the Book of Mormon is indeed a factual, tangible record. Mesoamerican archaeology is in its infancy when compared to the numerous excavations of Egyptian sites. Any Mesoamerican archaeologist would admit we have yet much to learn, especially in regard to those years covering the Pre-Classic period, within which the bulk of the Book of Mormon story falls."
28.
29.
30.
31.
32. Mormons and Archaeology: An Outside View, , Michael D, Coe, Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought,
33.
34.
35.
36. entry on "American Indians", ''Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume VII'' (orig. pub. 1910); on-line at New Advent
37. ''Archaeology “proves” Bible not Book of Mormon, Michael R. Ash
38. The Maya, , Timothy, Laughton, Duncan Baird Publishers, , ISBN 1-84483-016-0 "In the late 1560s the Spanish bishop of Yucatan, Fray Diego de Landa, wrote of the Maya: 'These people also made use of certain characters or letters, with which they wrote in their books of ancient matters and sciences. We found a large number of books written in these characters and, as they contained nothing in which there was not superstition and lies of the devil, we burned them all...'"
39.
40. Introduction to Maya Hieroglyphs, Kettunen, Harri and Helmke, Christophe, , , Wayeb and Leiden University, 2005,
41. ''Ibid.''
42.
43. Archaeology and The Book of Mormon, , Hal, Hougey, Pacific Publishing, 1983,
44. Ancient America Rediscovered as recorded by Mariano Veytia (1720-1778), , Donald, Hemingway, Bonneville Books, 2000, ISBN 1-55517-479-5 Among some of the myths recorded by Veytia are that seven families traveled across the ocean to New Spain at the time of the confusion of tongues, the belief that there was a great flood, the suspension of the sun for a day, and the presence of giants in New Spain.
45. "Sir, Considering the Liberal Principles," Joseph Smith to N.C. Saxton, editor, American Revivalist, and Rochester Observer, 4 January 1833 (from Times and Seasons [Nauvoo, Illinois] 5 [15 November 1844], 21:705-707)
46. (See also Zelph)
47. "Did the Prophet Joseph Smith in 1842 Locate Book of Mormon Lands in Middle America?", by V. Garth Norman
48. Oliver Cowdery, "Letter Seven," Messenger and Advocate, July 1835
49. See, for example, the documentary ''Journey of Faith'' produced by the Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies; see also S. Kent Brown, "New Light from Arabia on Lehi's Trail," in ''Evidences and Echoes of the Book of Mormon'', ed. Donald W. Parry, Daniel C. Peterson, and John W. Welch [Provo, Utah: FARMS, 2002], 55–125, especially 81–85, 88–90
50. See Nahman Avigad and Benjamin Sass, Corpus of West Semitic Stamp Seals (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1997), 55, item no. 15.
51. Has the Seal of Mulek Been Found?, , Jeffrey R., Chadwick, Journal of Book of Mormon Studies,
52. "The clarity with which this journey is described has led Mormons, scholars included, to believe that the group traveled south across the Arabian Peninsula to modern-day Yemen or Oman."
53. A Case for Lehi's Bondage in Arabia, , S. Kent, Brown, Journal of Book of Mormon Studies,
54.
55.
56.
57. Review of "Discovering Lehi: New Evidence of Lehi and Nephi in Arabia", , Warren, Aston, , 1997
58. A New Candidate in Arabia for the "Valley of Lemuel", , George, Potter, Journal of Book of Mormon Studies, This claim was made by George Potter and Craig Thorsted of the Nephi Project on 11 May 1995.Nephi Project
59. The Wrong Place for Lehi's Trail and the Valley of Lemuel, , Jeffery R, Chadwick, Journal of Book of Mormon Studies,
60. Ancient Hebrew Research Center
61. Jeff Lindsay
62. Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies
63. On Nahom/NHM
64. Answering Mormon Scholars: A Response to Criticism Raised by Mormon Defenders, , Jerald, Tanner, Utah Lighthouse Ministry, ,
65.
66. ''Book of Mormon Explorers Claim Discoveries'', Nephi Project
67. In the Footsteps of Lehi: New Evidence for Lehi's Journey across Arabia to Bountiful, , Warren P. and Michaela Knoth, Aston, Deseret Book Company, , ISBN 0-87579-847-0
68. see the Nephi Project paper on the topic. One of the images engraved on the plates shown in the paper appears to be similar to sacred rites performed in Mormon temples.
69. "For many Mormons, this is as deep as their awareness of the origin of Native Americans extends. They remain oblivious to the large volume of research that has revealed continuous, widespread human occupation of the Americas for the last 14,000 years. Such research conflicts with popular LDS views patterned on the Book of Mormon and is therefore largely ignored."
70.
71.
72. Sorenson, John L., compiler. The Geography of Book of Mormon Events: A Source Book Provo: FARMS, 1992. ASIN: B0006QHZWE. The book is a compilation of hundreds of proposed locations, some problematic without major climate changes, others have many convincing elements.
73.
74. Critique of a Limited Geography for Book of Mormon Events, , Earl M, Wunderli, Dialog: A Journal of Mormon Thought,
75. Does the Shoe Fit? A Critique of the Limited Tehuantepec Geography, , Deanne G, Matheny, New Approaches to the Book of Mormon: Explorations in Critical Methodology,
76. Viva Zapato! Hurray for the Shoe!, , John L, Sorenson, FARMS Review of Books, 1994
77. Limited Geography and the Book of Mormon: Historical Antecedents and Early Interpretations, , Matthew, Roper, FARMS Review, 2004
78. Ralph A. Olsen, "A Malay Site for Book of Mormon Events", ''Sunstone Magazine'', Mar. 2004, 30.
79. Coe states that "much of complex culture in Mesoamerica has an Olmec Origin" and states that an "active interchange of ideas" occurred.
80. "Because the Maya had a habit of putting new buildings directly on top of older structures, Preclassic remains are few and far between at sites like Homul and Tikal that were occupied during the Classic period." David F. Salisbury, "Pushing back Maya origins" taken from Vanderbilt.edu
81. Seasons of War, Seasons of Peace, , John L, Sorenson, Rediscovering the Book of Mormon,
82. 13 Moons On the Turtles Back. A Native American Year of Moons'', ISBN 0-698-11584-8, Putnam and Grossnet Group, 199
83. First Dates: The Maya calendar and writing system were not the
only ones in Mesoamerica--or even the earliest, Marcus, Joyce, , , Natural History, 1991
84.
85. "For I know that thou wast in bonds; yea, and I also know that thou wast stoned for the word’s sake."
86. Aztec & Maya: Life in an Ancient Civilization, , Charles, Phillips, Hermes House, 2005,
87. Since Cumorah, , Hugh, Nibley, Deseret Book and FARMS, ,
88. Last-Ditch Warfare in Ancient Mesoamerica Recalls the Book of Mormon, , John L, Sorenson, Journal of Book of Mormon Studies,
89. Seasons of War, Seasons of Peace, , John L, Sorenson, Rediscovering the Book of Mormon,
90. This reference supports the Mesoamerican geography model over the Great Lakes Model, since there is no mention of cold or snow during these battles, as would have been the case in a North American setting.
91. "Bekan in the Chenes region just north of the Peten, which was completely surrounded by massive defensive earthworks some time between the second and fourth centuries B.C. These consist of a ditch and inner rampart, with a total height of 38 ft (11.6 m), and would have been formidable...if the rampart had been surmounted by a palisade."
92. Ensign Sept 1984, p. 28.
93. http://mayaruins.com/becan/aerial1.html
94. The Lamanai Archaeological Project, Lamanai, Belize
95. An Unusual Tree-of-Life Sculpture from Ancient Central America, , M. Wells, Jakeman, University Archaeological Society Newsletter, 1953
96. A New Artistic Rendering of Izapa Stela 5: A Step toward Improved Interpretation, , John E, Clark, Journal of Book of Mormon Studies, 1999
97. The Mulekites, , John, Sorenson, BYU Studies, 1990
98.
99.
100. Instances in which horses and chariots are mentioned: Alma 18: 9 "And they said unto him: Behold, he is feeding thy horses. Now the king had commanded his servants...that they should prepare his horses and chariots"; Alma 18: 12 "And it came to pass that when Ammon had made ready the horses and the chariots for the king and his servants..."; Alma 20: 6 "Now when Lamoni had heard this he caused that his servants should make ready his horses and his chariots." 3 Ne. 3: 22 "[A]nd they had taken their horses, and their chariots..."
101. Basic Methodological Problems with the Anti-Mormon Approach to the Geography and Archaeology of the Book of Mormon, , William J, Hamblin, Featured Papers,
102. Identification of Horse Exploitation by Clovis Hunters Based on Protein Analysis, , Brian, Kooyman, American Antiquity,
103. Remains Show Ancient Horses Were Hunted for Their Meat, , Hillary, Mayell, National Geographic News,
104. Late Pleistocene Horse (Equus sp.) from the Wilson-Leonard Archaeological Site, Central Texas
105. Rapid body size decline in Alaskan Pleistocene horses before extinction
106. Wild Horses as Native North American Wildlife
107. A brief history of the horse in America; Horse phylogeny and evolution
108. "And they also had horses, and asses, and there were elephants..."
109.
110. Men and Elephants in America, , Ludwell H III, Johnson, Scientific Monthly, Johnson states that the stories claimed that the monster was "very large, had a big head, large ears and teeth, and a long nose with which he hit people."
111. Mammoth or "Stiff-Legged Bear", , F. T. Jr, Siebert, American Anthropologist,
112. ''See'' Dictionary.com and Strong's Concordance
113. "[N]either cast ye your pearls before swine."
114. "Yea, and they did keep the law of Moses; for it was expedient that they should keep the law of Moses as yet, for it was not all fulfilled."
115. "[A]nd there were elephants and cureloms and cumoms; all of which were useful unto man, and more especially the elephants and cureloms and cumoms."
116. Basic Methodological Problems with the Anti-Mormon Approach to the Geography and Archaeology of the Book of Mormon, , William J, Hamblin, Featured Papers, See footnote 112: "Horses are never said to have been ridden in the Book of Mormon. Chariots are mentioned in association with horses (only in one incident, Alma 18:9–12; 20:6). This may be another indication that the horse was uncommon, since in societies where horseback riding is known the use of chariots rapidly declines. Furthermore, cureloms and cumoms were thought to be more useful to man than horses (Ether 9:19), a clear indication of the relative unimportance of the horse in Book of Mormon societies. Indeed, horses may have been used primarily for food."
117. Barley and Wheat in the Book Mormon, , , , Featured Papers,
118. Barley and Wheat in the Book Mormon, , , , Featured Papers,
119.
120. Barley and Wheat in the Book Mormon, , , , Featured Papers, ; Gelb, Ignace J., et al., eds., ''The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago'' (Chicago: Oriental Institute, 1992), vol. 17, part 2, pages 345–55.
121. , ,
122. Aztec & Maya: Life in an Ancient Civilization, , Charles, Phillips, Hermes House, ,
123. John L. Sorenson's book, Images of Ancient America: Visualizing Book of Mormon Life (Provo, Utah: Research Press (1998))
124. The word "wheel" does not occur in conjunction with chariots or travel in the Book of Mormon
125. Sorenson, p. 59
126. See [http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/display.php?table=review&id=68 Pre-Columbian Contact with the Americas across the Oceans: An Annotated Bibliography
127.
128. While the Book of Mormon would be the longest such record engraved on plates found to date, such engraving is a documented ancient method of preservation Lehi's Jerusalem and Writing on Metal Plates
129. Lehi's Jerusalem and Writing on Metal Plates, , William J, Adams, Journal of Book of Mormon Studies,
130. Jeremiah 15:12: "Can iron break steel from the north?"
131. PreClovis Artifacts from Central Texas
132. America's Mysterious Furnaces
133. Were Ohio's Pit Smelters The Work of Pioneers?
134. What's in a Name? A Look at the Book of Mormon Onomasticon by John A. Tvedtnes
135. "And again, they have brought swords, the hilts thereof have perished, and the blades thereof were cankered with rust."
136. Swords and "Cimeters" in the Book of Mormon, , Matthew, Roper, Journal of Book of Mormon Studies, "Spaniards who faced native Mesoamerican swords in battle were deeply impressed by their deadly cutting power and razorlike sharpness."
137. ''Jesus Christ/Joseph Smith'' Video, Tri-Grace Ministries, distributed 2007. See segment on "Archaeological Evidence." The specific writings of Joseph Smith in which coins are said to be discussed as being "common" are not identified in the video.
138. "[W]ell into Colonial times the beans served as a form of money in regional markets."
139. See Fairlds.org's article (right side middle). "The Spanish reported several kinds of “silk.” One kind of silk was spun from the hair of rabbit’s bellies, another may have come from a wild silkworm, and yet a third came from the pod of the ceiba tree. Spanish chronicles report that types of “silk” were spun and woven in Mesoamerica before their arrival."
140.
141.
142. The native races of the Pacific states of North America, , Hubert Howe, Bancroft, , 1875,
143. Bancroft, 1875, p 23
144. "Quetzalcoatl the Myth", University of California, San Diego undergrad. project
145. Smithsonian Issues Statement regarding Book of Mormon http://www.irr.org/mit/smithson.html
146. A letter that was sent to one inquiring party
147. The Smithsonian Institution's 1996 "Statement Regarding the Book of Mormon"
148.
References
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External links
★ (Pro) http://www.weaverresearch.org/tomsfinalpaper.htm
★ (Pro) http://farms.byu.edu/publications/bookofmormonview.php?subcat=100&cat=1
★ (Pro) http://www.jefflindsay.com/LDSFAQ/DNA.shtml
★ (Pro) http://www.lds.org/newsroom/mistakes/0,15331,3885-1-18078,00.html
★ (Pro) http://jefflindsay.com/BMEvidences.shtml
★ (Pro) http://www.bmaf.org Book of Mormon Archaeological Forum
★ (Pro) http://www2.ida.net/graphics/shirtail/keystone.htm
★ (Pro) http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/pdf.php?filename=MTQwNTUyMzg2LTEyLTIucGRm&type=amJtcw==
★ (Neutral) Larson, Stan, ''The Odyssey of Thomas Stuart Ferguson.'' Dialogue 23 (1) Spring 1990: 55-93.
★ (Neutral) King, David S, ''"Proving" the Book of Mormon: Archaeology Vs. Faith.'', Dialogue 24 (1) Spring 1991: 143-146.
★ (Con) Coe, Michael, "Mormons and Archeology - An Outside View", ''Dialogue'', Summer, 1973.
★ (Con) http://www.religioustolerance.org/lds_migr1.htm
★ (Con)http://www.irr.org/mit/bompage.html
★ (Con) http://www.ericbarger.com/mormon.dna.htm
★ (Con) http://www.contenderministries.org/mormonism/bomproblems.php
★ (Con) The Skeptics Annotated BOM
★ (Con) http://utlm.org/topicalindexa.htm#Archeology
★ (Con) http://www.lhvm.org/index.htm (Living Hope Ministries official webpage)
★ (Con) http://www.mormonchallenge.com/index.htm
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