:''For other meanings of autonomism, see
autonomism (disambiguation) page''
'Autonomism' refers to a set of
left-wing political and social movements and theories close to the
socialist movement. Autonomism (''autonomia'') emerged in
Italy in the 1960s from
workerist (''
operaismo'')
communism. Later, post-
Marxist and
anarchist tendencies became significant after influence from the
Situationists, the failure of the Italian far-left movements in the 1970s and the emergence of a number of important theorists including
Antonio Negri, who had contributed to the 1969 founding of ''
Potere Operaio'' marxist group,
Mario Tronti,
Paolo Virno, etc. It influenced the German and Dutch 'Autonomen', the worldwide
Social Center movement, and today is influential in Italy, France, the United States and some other English-speaking countries. Those who describe themselves as autonomists now vary from workerist Marxists to
post-structuralists and (some) anarchists.
Meaning of autonomy
The term ''autonomia''/''Autonome'' is derived from the
Greek "αὐτό-
νομος" referring to someone or something which lives by his/her own rule. , in this sense, is not
independence. While independence refers to an
autarcic kind of life, separated from the
community, autonomy refers to life in society but by one own's rule.
Aristotle thus considered that only beasts or gods could be independent and live apart from the ''
polis'' ("community"), while
Kant defined the
Enlightenment by autonomy of thought and the famous ''"
Sapere aude"'' ("dare to know").
Autonomist theory
Unlike other forms of Marxism, autonomist Marxism emphasises the ability of the
working class to force changes to the organisation of the
capitalist system independent of the
state,
trade unions or
political parties. Autonomists are less concerned with party political organisation than other types of Marxist thought, focusing instead on self-organised action outside of traditional organisational structures. Autonomist Marxism is thus a "bottom up" theory: it draws attention to activities that autonomists see as everyday working class resistance to capitalism, for example
absenteeism, slow working, and socialisation in the workplace.
Like other Marxists, autonomists see
class struggle as being of central importance. However, autonomists have a broader definition of the working class than other Marxists: as well as wage-earning workers (both
white collar and
blue collar), autonomists also include the unwaged (students, the unemployed, homemakers etc), who are traditionally deprived of any form of union representation.
Early theorists (such as
Mario Tronti,
Antonio Negri,
Sergio Bologna and
Paolo Virno) developed notions of "immaterial" and "social labour" that extended the Marxist concept of labour to all society. They suggested that modern society's wealth was produced by unaccountable collective work, and that only a little of this was redistributed to the workers in the form of
wages. They emphasised the importance of
feminism and the value of unpaid female labour to capitalist society.
Italian Autonomism
Autonomist Marxism - referred to in Italy as ''operaismo'', which translates literally as "workerism" - first appeared in Italy in the early 1960s. Arguably, the emergence of early autonomism can be traced to the dissatisfaction of automotive workers in
Turin with their union, which reached an agreement with
FIAT. The disillusionment of these workers with their organised representation, along with the resultant riots, were critical factors in the development of a theory of self-organised labour representation outside the scope of traditional representatives such as
trade unions.
In
1969, the ''operaismo'' approach was active mainly in two different groups: ''
Lotta Continua'', led by
Adriano Sofri (which had a very important
Roman Catholic cultural matrix) and ''
Potere Operaio'', led by
Antonio Negri,
Franco Piperno,
Oreste Scalzone, and
Valerio Morucci.
Mario Capanna was an important leader of the Milan student movement, who had a more classical
Marxist-Leninist approach.
Important influences on Italian autonomism
Through translations made available by
Danilo Montaldi and others, the Italian autonomists drew upon previous activist research in the United States by the
Johnson-Forest Tendency and in France by the group
Socialisme ou Barbarie (see below). The Johnson-Forest Tendency had studied working class life and struggles within the US auto industry, publishing pamphlets such as "The American Worker" (1947), "Punching Out" (1952) and "Union Committemen and Wildcat Strikes" (1955). That work was translated into French by Socialisme ou Barbarie and published, serially, in their journal. They too began investigating and writing about what was going on inside workplaces, in their case inside both auto factories and insurance offices.
The journal ''
Quaderni Rossi'' ("Red Notebooks"), along with its successor ''
Classe Operaia'' ("Working Class"), were also influential in the development of early autonomism. Both of these were founded by
Antonio Negri and
Mario Tronti -
Quaderni Rossi was produced between 1961 and 1965, and
Classe Operaia between 1963 and 1966.
Pirate radio stations also were an important factor in spreading autonomist ideas and theory.
Bologna's
Radio Alice was an example of such a station.
Autonomist action in Italy
The Italian
student movement, starting from 1966 (murder by
neo-fascists of student
Paolo Rossi in
Rome University) engaged itself in various
direct action operations, including
riots and University occupations], along with more peaceful activities such as
self reduction, in which individuals refused to pay for such services and goods as
public transport, electricity, gas, rent, and food. Several clashes occurred between the students ("Movimento studentesco") and the police, during the occupations of Universities in the winter 1967-1968, during the
Fiat occupations, in March 1968 in Rome during the "
Battle of Valle Giulia".
The Piazza Fontana bombing and its legacy
Main articles: Piazza Fontana bombing
In December 1969, four bombings struck in
Rome the
Monument of Vittorio Emanuele II (''Altare della Patria''), the ''
Banca Nazionale del Lavoro'', and in
Milan the ''
Banca Commerciale'' and the ''Banca Nazionale dell'Agricoltura''. The later bombing, known as the
Piazza Fontana bombing of 12 December 1969, killed 16 and injured 90, marking the beginning of the "strategia della tensione" (
strategy of tension) in Italy. After the bombing, some 4,000 members of left-wing groups - including anarchists - were detained by the police.
Giuseppe Pinelli, an anarchist, was accused at the time of having carried out the bombing.
Giuseppe Pinelli was held and interrogated for three days, longer than Italian law specified that people could be held without seeing a judge. On
December 15, he died after falling out of a window.
Luigi Calabresi, the police officer who had directed his interrogation, as well as other officers were accused of pushing him out of the window, and put under investigation in 1971 for murder, but charges were dropped because of lack of evidence. The next year, Calabresi was murdered by two shots from a revolver outside his home.
Another anarchist,
Pietro Valpreda, was then arrested, sentenced for the crime, before being cleared sixteen years later. In the 1980s, the
neo-fascist terrorist
Vincenzo Vinciguerra confessed to magistrate
Felice Casson that the bombing had in fact been carried out by the far-right organisation ''
Ordine Nuovo'', supported by
Gladio,
NATO's
stay-behind anti-Communist network, in an attempt to push the state into declaring a
state of emergency. Despite these confessions, all
defendants were
acquitted by the
Court of Cassation on
May 3,
2005, during the seventh trial for the Piazza Fontana bombing. The victim's relatives were condemned to refund trial expenses.
This attack has been widely considered part of the
strategy of tension (''strategia della tensione''), which allegedly aimed at destabilizing the country through a campaign of "
false flags" terrorist attacks - attacks blamed on left-wing groups. The strategy aimed to promote an authoritatian government and (in later years) to sabotage the possibilities for a
historic compromise (''compromesso storico'') between the
Christian Democracy (DC) and the
Communist Party (PCI).
In
1988, former ''
Lotta continua'' member
Adriano Sofri was arrested, along with Ovidio Bompressi and Giorgio Pietrostefani, for the murder of Luigi Calabresi, the police officer who was suspected of having killed Giuseppe Pinelli. The charges against them were based on testimony provided, sixteen years later, by a "collaboratore di giustizia"- an ex-militant who accused himself of having carried out the murder of Calabresi (under order from Sofri) and collaborated with the magistrates. Claiming his innocence, Sofri was finally sentenced 22 years after a long series of trials, in 2000. Historian
Carlo Ginzburg wrote, on this case, a book in support of Sofri's innocence, entitled ''The Judge and the Historian: Marginal Notes on a Late Twentieth-Century Miscarriage of Justice''.
The killing of Aldo Moro and the prosecution of the autonomists
On
March 11,
1977, riots (in which the autonomists participated) took place in Bologna following the killing of a young man by the police.
Gladio, as well as the
Italian secret services and the outlawed
Propaganda Due masonic lodge (aka "P2"), were later found to be directly involved in the strategy of tension.
Starting from
1979, the state prosecuted effectively the autonomist movement, claiming it protected the
Red Brigades, which had kidnapped and assassinated
Aldo Moro. 12,000 far-left activists were detained, while 300 fled to
France and 200 others to
South America, on a total of 600 people who fled
[1].
The French ''autonome'' movement
In France, the marxist group ''
Socialisme ou Barbarie'', led by philosopher
Cornelius Castoriadis, could be said to be one of the first autonomist groups, as well as having importance in the
council communist tradition. As mentioned above, ''Socialisme ou Barbarie'' drew upon the American
Johnson-Forest Tendency's activist research inside US auto plants and carried out their own investigations into rank and file workers struggles - struggles autonomous of union or party leadership.
Also parallel to the work of the Johnson-Forest Tendency, ''Socialisme ou Barbarie'' harshly criticised the
Stalinist regime in the
USSR, which it considered a form of '
bureaucratic capitalism' and not at all the
state socialism it pretended to be. Philosopher
Jean-François Lyotard, famous for his work on
post-modernism, was also part of this movement.
However, the Italian influence of the ''operaismo'' movement was more directly felt in the creation of the review ''Matériaux pour l'intervention'' (1972-1973) by
Yann Moulier-Boutang, a French economist close to Toni Negri. This would lead in turn to the creation of the ''
Camarades'' group (1974-78) by Moulier-Boutang. Along with others, Moulier-Boutang would join the ''Centre International pour des Nouveaux Espaces de Liberté'' (CINEL), founded three years before by
Félix Guattari, and would give refuge to Italian activists accused of terrorism, of whom at least 300 escaped to France.
The French autonome mouvement then organised itself in the AGPA (''Assemblée Parisienne des Groupes Autonomes'', "Parisian Assembly of Autonome Groups"; 1977-78). Many tendencies were present in it, including the ''Camarades'' group led by Moulier-Boutang, members of the ''
Organisation communiste libertaire'' (OCL - an
anarchist-communist group), some people referring themselves to the "Desiring Autonomy" of
Bob Nadoulek, but also squatters and street-wise people (including the ''
groupe Marge''). French autonomes supported the
Rote Armee Fraktion ("Red Army Faction" - RAF)
political prisoners, a cause also defended by
Jean-Paul Sartre.
The militant group ''
Action Directe'' appeared in 1979 and carried on several
direct actions. Action Directe claimed responsability for the murders of
Renault's CEO
Georges Besse and
General Audran. George Besse had been CEO of nuclear company
Eurodif. It was later alleged that the murder of General Audran had in fact been carried on by the
Iranian intelligence services. ''Action Directe'' was dissolved in 1987.
In the 1980s, the autonomist movement almost disappeared from Italy because of
state repression, and was stronger in Germany than in France. It remained mostly present in Parisian squats and in some
riots (for example in
1980 near the
Jussieu campus in Paris, or in
1982 in the
Ardennes department during
anti-nuclear demonstrations). In the 1980s, the French autonomists published the periodicals ''CAT Pages'' (1981-1982), ''Rebelles'' (1981-1993), ''Tout !'' (1982-1985), ''Molotov et Confetti'' (1984), ''
Les Fossoyeurs du Vieux Monde'', ''La Chôme'' (1984-1985) and ''Contre'' (1987-1989).
In the 1990s, the French autonomist movement was present in struggles led by
unemployed people, with ''Travailleurs, Chômeurs, et Précaires en colère'' (TCP, "Angry Workers, Unemployed, and Precarious people") and ''l'Assemblée générale des chômeurs de Jussieu'' ("General Assembly of Jussieu's unemployed people"). It was also involved in the
alter-globalisation movement and above all in the solidarity with illegal foreigners (Collective ''Des Papiers pour tous'' ("Permits for all", 1996) and ''Collectif Anti-Expulsion'' (1998-2005)). Several jourhals dated from that time: ''
Quilombo'' (1988-1993), ''Apache'' (1990-1998), ''Tic-Tac'' (1995-1997), ''Karoshi'' (1998-1999), and ''Tiqqun'' (1999-2001).
From
July 19 to
July 28,
2002, a
No Borders camp was made in
Strasbourg to protest against anti-
immigration policies, in particular inside the
Schengen European space.
In
2003, conflict opposed autonomists to the
French Socialist Party (PS) during a demonstration that had taken place in the frame of the
European Social Forum in
Saint-Denis (Paris). At the end of December, hundreds of unemployed people helped themselves in the ''
Bon Marché'' supermarket to be able to celebrate Christmas (an action called "''autoréduction''" (of prices) in French).
French riot police (CRS) physically opposed the unemployed people inside the shop. Autonomes rioted during the
spring 2006 protests against the
CPE, and again after the
2007 presidential election when right-wing candidate
Nicolas Sarkozy was elected.
The German ''Autonome'' movement in the 1970-80s
In Germany, ''Autonome'' was used during the late 1970s to depict the most radical part of the political left and supported anarchist and
anarcho-communist ideas. These individuals participated in practically all actions of the social movements at the time, especially in demonstrations against
nuclear energy plants (Brokdorf 1981, Wackersdorf 1986) and in actions against the construction of airport runways (Frankfurt 1976-1986). The defense of
squats against the police such as in
Hamburg's ''Hafenstraße'' was also a major "task" for the "autonome" movement. The Dutch anarchist ''Autonomen'' movement from the 1960s also concentrated on squatting.
Tactics of the "Autonome" were usually militant, including the construction of barricades or throwing stones or
molotov cocktails at the police. During their most powerful times in the early 1980s, on at least one occasion the police had to take flight.
Because of their outfit (heavy black clothing, ski masks, helmets), the "Autonome" were dubbed ''der schwarze Block'' by the German media, and in these tactics were similar to modern
black blocs. In 1989, laws regarding demonstrations in Germany were changed, prohibiting the use of so-called "passive weaponry" such as helmets or padding and covering your face.
Today, the "autonome" scene in Germany is greatly reduced and concentrates mainly on
anti-fascist actions, ecology, solidarity with
refugees,
feminism. There are more militant and bigger groups still in operation, such as in
Switzerland or
Italy.
Influence
The Autonomist Marxist and ''Autonomen'' movements provided inspiration to some on the revolutionary left in English speaking countries, particularly among anarchists, many of whom have have adopted autonomist tactics. Some English-speaking anarchists even describe themselves as ''Autonomists''. The Italian ''operaismo'' movement also influenced Marxist academics such as
Harry Cleaver,
John Holloway, Steve Wright, and
Nick Dyer-Witheford. In
Denmark, the word is used as a catch-all phrase for anarchists and the extraparliamentary extreme left in general, as was seen in the media coverage of the eviction of the
Ungdomshuset squat in
Copenhagen in March 2007.
References
1. On the Autonomist movement
Bibliography
★ ''L’Autonomie. Le mouvement autonome en France et en Italie'', éditions Spartacus 1978
★ ''Autonomes'', Jan Bucquoy and Jacques Santi, ANSALDI 1985
★ ''
Action Directe. Du terrorisme français à l’euroterrorisme'', Alain Hamon and Jean-Charles Marchand, SEUIL 1986
★ ''Paroles Directes. Légitimité, révolte et révolution : autour d’Action Directe'', Loïc Debray, Jean-Pierre Duteuil, Philippe Godard,
Henri Lefebvre, Catherine Régulier, Anne Sveva, Jacques Wajnsztejn, ACRATIE 1990
★ ''Un Traître chez les totos'', Guy Dardel, ACTES SUD 1999 (novel)
★ ''Bac + 2 + crime : l’affaire Florence Rey'', Frédéric Couderc, CASTELLS 1998
★ ''Italie 77. Le « Mouvement », les intellectuels'', Fabrizio Calvi, SEUIL 1977
★ ''Una sparatoria tranquilla. Per una storia orale del '77'', ODRADEK 1997
★ ''Die Autonomen'', Thomas Schultze et Almut Gross, KONKRET LITERATUR 1997
★ ''Autonome in Bewegung, AG Grauwacke aus den ersten 23 Jahren'', ASSOCIATION A 2003
★ ''The Subversion of Politics: European Autonomous Social Movements and the Decolonization of Everyday Life'', Georgy Katsiaficas, AK Press, 2006
★ ''Autonomia: Post-Political Politics'', Ed. Sylvere Lotringer & Christian Marazzi. New York: Semiotext(e). 1980.
★ ''Storming Heaven: Class composition and struggle in Italian Autonomist Marxism'', Steve Wright, University of Michigan Press ISBN 0-7453-1607-9
See also
Autonomist Marxism thinkers
★
Antonio Negri
★
Sergio Bologna
★
Mario Tronti
★
Paolo Virno
★
Silvia Federici
★ ''
Multitudes'' magazine
★
Daniel Guerin
Other movements or organizations
★
Autonomedia (US radical media collective)
★
Black blocs (
alter-globalization groups)
★
Os Cangaceiros (a french group)
★
Red & Anarchist Action Network
★
Council Communist
★
Disobbedienti (ex
Tute Bianche)
★
Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) (international revolutionary union)
★
Libertarian Marxism
★
London Autonomists
★
Luxembourgism
★
Socialisme ou Barbarie, a French group led by philosopher
Cornelius Castoriadis
★
The Blitz (movement) (Norway)
★
Ungdomshuset (Danish autonomist squatt, evacuated in March 2007)
★
Zapatista Army of National Liberation, Mexican indigenous people's movement
★
MST, Brazilian landless people's movement
★
Abahlali baseMjondolo, African shack dwellers' movement
Italian 1960-80 context
★
History of Italy as a Republic
★
strategy of tension
★
Operation Gladio
★ ''
Autonomia Operaia''
★
Cesare Battisti, former member of the PAC
Others
★
autonomation
★
direct action
★
precarity
★
propaganda of the deed
★
spontaneism
★
Kommune 1
External links
Archives
★
Libertarian Communist Library Mario Tronti Archive
★
Libertarian Communist Library Sergio Bolognia Archive
★
Libertarian Communist Library Nick Dyer-Witheford Archive
★
Libertarian Communist Library Antonio Negri Archive
★
Libertarian Communist Library Raniero Panzieri Archive
★
Libertarian Communist Library Harry Cleaver Archive
★
[1]
Others
★
Articles by members of the ''operaismo'' movement
★
Aut-op-sy - Autonomist forum and texts
★
Texas Archives of Autonomist Marxism
★
Affinty Project directory and chronology of Autonomous Marxism
★
Libertarian Communist Library, texts on autonomism
★
The Anomalist E-Journal
★
Nadir
★
Wildcat
★
No Border
★
www.autonome.org
★
A critique of autonomism, published by a Trotskyist group
★ [http://www.softtargetsjournal.com/v21/tiqqun.php TIQQUN “Introduction to Civil War [fragments]”]
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