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A 'barcode' (also 'bar code') is a machine-readable representation of information (usually dark ink on a light background to create high and low reflectance which is converted to 1s and 0s). Originally, barcodes stored data in the widths and spacings of printed parallel lines, but today they also come in patterns of dots, concentric circles, and text codes hidden within images. Barcodes can be read by optical scanners called barcode readers or scanned from an image by special software. Barcodes are widely used to implement Auto ID Data Capture (AIDC) systems that improve the speed and accuracy of computer data entry. An advantage over other methods of AIDC is that it is less expensive to implement. It will cost about US$0.005 to implement a barcode compared to passive RFID which still costs about US$0.07 to US$0.30 per tag.^[1]

Contents

History

Use

The Universal Product Code (colloquially, "UPC Code")

Development of the IBM UPC proposal

Symbologies

Scanner/symbology interaction

Scanners (barcode readers)

Verifier (Pika inspection)

Benefits of using barcodes

Types of barcodes

Linear barcodes

Stacked barcodes

2D barcodes a.k.a. 2D codes

How Are Bar Codes Made?

See also

References

Further reading

External links

History

The first barcode was developed in 1948 by three graduate students at Drexel Institute of Technology,
Jordin Johanson, Bernard Silver and Norman Joseph Woodland. They filed for a U.S. patent in October 1949 and it was granted in 1952. Its implementation was made possible through the work of Raymond Alexander and Frank Stietz, two engineers with Sylvania, as a result of their work on a system to identify railroad cars (who were also granted a patent). It was not until 1966 that barcodes were put to commercial use and they were not commercially successful until the 1980s. [1]
While traditionally barcode encoding schemes represented only numbers, newer symbologies add new characters such as the uppercase alphabet to the complete ASCII character set and beyond. The drive to encode more information in combination with the space requirements of simple barcodes led to the development of matrix codes (a type of '2D barcode'), which do not consist of bars but rather a grid of square cells. 'Stacked barcodes' are a compromise between true 2D barcodes and linear codes, and are formed by taking a traditional linear symbology and placing it in an envelope that allows multiple rows.
In 1970–71 IBM had three different barcodes that were alpha-numeric, Delta A, Delta B and Delta C, all self clocking delta distance codes. Two of these were developed to solve the needs of the National Retail Merchants Association or NRMA. Only the Delta B code was proposed to NRMA. The Delta C code, reduced to a numeric alphabet, was used for the UPC Label. The Delta C alpha-numeric code achieved twenty-one characters per inch with a reasonable retail label printer as compared to seven for Delta A and five for Delta B.

Use

Since their invention in the 20th century, barcodes — especially the UPC code — have slowly become an essential part of modern civilization. Their use is widespread, and the technology behind barcodes is constantly improving. Some modern applications of barcodes include:

★ Practically every item purchased from a grocery store, department store, and mass merchandiser has a barcode on it. This greatly helps in keeping track of the large number of items in a store and also reduces instances of shoplifting (since shoplifters could no longer easily switch price tags from a lower-cost item to a higher-priced one). Since the adoption of barcodes, both consumers and retailers have benefited from the savings generated.

★ Document Management tools often allow for barcoded sheets to facilitate the separation and indexing of documents that have been imaged in batch scanning applications.

★ The tracking of item movement, including rental cars, airline luggage, nuclear waste, mail and parcels.

★ Recently, researchers have placed tiny barcodes on individual bees to track the insects' mating habits.

★ In the late 1990s in Tokyo, there was a fad for temporary barcode shaped tattoos among high school girls.

★ Many tickets now have barcodes that will need validated before allowing the holder to enter sports arenas, cinemas, theatres, fairgrounds, transportation etc.

The Universal Product Code (colloquially, "UPC Code")

Main articles: Universal Product Code

The best-known and most widespread use of barcodes has been on consumer products. The UPC symbol is a response to a business need first identified by the US grocery industry in the early 1970s.
Believing that automating the grocery checkout process could reduce labor costs, improve inventory control, speed up the process, and improve customer service, six industry associations, representing both product manufacturers and supermarkets, created an industry wide committee of industry leaders. Their two-year effort resulted in the announcement of the Universal Product Code and the U.P.C. barcode symbol on April 1, 1973. The UPC Symbol that was chosen by the committee was a modified version of a symbol design that was submitted by IBM. IBM also designed five versions of the UPC symbology for future industry requirements — UPC A, B, C, D, and E. ^[2] The U.P.C. made its first commercial appearance at the Marsh Supermarket in Troy, Ohio in June 1974.^[3]
Legend has it that the first item with a barcode was a pack of Wrigley's gum. This isn't quite true. The first item scanned in a retail establishment was at 8:01 a.m. on June 26, 1974, and was a 10-pack of Juicy Fruit chewing gum. ^[2] The entire shopping cart also had barcoded items in it, but the gum was merely the first one picked up by the cashier.
Originally, the modern day bar code was developed to identify railroad cars. However, a toll bridge in New Jersey requested that a similar system be developed so that it could quickly scan for cars that had paid for a monthly pass. Then the U.S. Post Office requested that a similar system be developed so that it could keep track of which trucks had entered the yard and when. These applications required special retroreflective labels. Finally, KalKan dog food asked the Sylvania team to develop a simpler (and cheaper) version which they could put on cases of dog food for inventory control. This, in turn, led to the grocery industry's interest.
Economic studies conducted for the grocery industry committee projected over $40 million in savings to the industry from scanning by the mid-1970s. Those numbers were not achieved in that time frame and there were those who predicted the demise of barcode scanning. The usefulness of the barcode required the adoption of expensive scanners by a critical mass of retailers while manufacturers simultaneously adopted barcode labels. Neither wanted to move first and results looked unpromising for the first couple of years, with Business Week eulogizing "The Supermarket Scanner That Failed."³
Working at Research Triangle Park, NC, in 1971 through 1972; three IBM engineers, Heard Baumeister, Bill Crouse, and George Laurer; created the Universal Product Code Label.

Development of the IBM UPC proposal

Main articles: Universal Product Code#Development_of_the_IBM_UPC_proposal, l1=Universal Product Code, section Development of the IBM UPC proposal

Joseph E. Fernandes proposed the use of the american UPC code for international inquiries.

Symbologies

The mapping between messages and barcodes is called a 'symbology'. The specification of a symbology includes the encoding of the single digits/characters of the message as well as the start and stop markers into bars and space, the size of the quiet zone required to be before and after the barcode as well as the computation of a checksum.
Linear symbologies can be classified mainly by two properties:

★ Continuous vs. discrete: Characters in continuous symbologies usually abut, with one character ending with a space and the next beginning with a bar, or vice versa. Characters in discrete symbologies begin and end with bars; the intercharacter space is ignored, as long as it is not wide enough to look like the code ends.

★ Two-width vs. many-width: Bars and spaces in two-width symbologies are wide or narrow; how wide a wide bar is exactly has no significance as long as the symbology requirements for wide bars are adhered to (usually two to three times more wide than a narrow bar). Bars and spaces in many-width symbologies are all multiples of a basic width called the 'module'; most such codes use four widths of 1, 2, 3 and 4 modules.
Some symbologies use interleaving. The first character is encoded using black bars of varying width. The second character is then encoded, by varying the width of the white spaces between these bars. Thus characters are encoded in pairs over the same section of the barcode. Interleaved 2 of 5 is an example of this.
Stacked symbologies consist of a given linear symbology repeated vertically in multiple.
There is a large variety of 2-D symbologies. The most common are matrix codes, which feature square or dot-shaped modules arranged on a grid pattern. 2-D symbologies also come in a variety of other visual formats. Aside from circular patterns, there are several 2-D symbologies which employ steganography by hiding an array of different-sized or -shaped modules within a user-specified image (for example, DataGlyph).

Scanner/symbology interaction

Linear symbologies are optimized to be read by a laser scanner, which sweeps a beam of light across the barcode in a straight line, reading a 'slice' of the bar code light-dark patterns. In the 1990s development of CCD imagers to read bar codes was pioneered by Welch Allyn. Imaging does not require moving parts, like a laser scanner does. In 2007, linear imaging is surpassing laser scanning as the preferred scan engine for its performance and durability.
Stacked symbologies are also optimized for laser scanning, with the laser making multiple passes across the barcode.
2-D symbologies cannot be read by a laser as there is typically no sweep pattern that can encompass the entire symbol. They must be scanned by a camera capture device.

Scanners (barcode readers)

Main articles: Barcode reader

The earliest, and still the cheapest, barcode scanners are built from a fixed light and a single photosensor that is manually "scrubbed" across the barcode.
A later design, the "laser scanner," uses a polygonal mirror or galvanometer-mounted mirror to scan a laser across the barcode — initially only in a straight line, but eventually in complicated patterns so the reader could read barcodes at any angle.
In the 1990s some barcode reader manufacturers began working with digital cameras to capture barcodes, both linear and 2D. That technology has matured and now often surpasses laser scanners in performance and reliability.
More recently, off-the-shelf digital cameras now have enough resolution to capture both 1D and 2D barcodes. Increasingly companies are looking to incorporate barcode scanning software into cameraphones. However, the camera phone optics are not well suited for standard codes that were designed for industrial dedicated scanners. As a result, new codes are being designed for mobile use such as color code and mCode.

Verifier (Pika inspection)

Barcode verifiers are primarily used by businesses that print barcodes, but any trading partner in the supply chain could test barcode quality. It is important to "grade" a barcode to ensure that any scanner in the supply chain can read the barcode. Retailers levy large fines and penalties for non-compliant barcodes.
Barcode verifiers work in a way similar to a scanner but instead of simply decoding a barcode, a verifier performs a series of eight tests. Each test is given a grade from 0.0 to 4.0 (F to A) and the lowest of any of the tests is the scan grade. For most applications a 2.5 (C) grade is the minimum acceptable grade.
Barcode Verifier Standards

★ The original U.S. barcode quality specification was ANSI X3.182. UPC Codes used in the US ANSI/UCC5.

★ The current international barcode quality specification is ISO/IEC 15416 (linear bar codes) and ISO/IEC 15415 (2D barcodes)

★ The European Standard EN 1635 has been withdrawn and replaced by ISO/IEC 15416

★ Barcode verifiers should comply with the ISO 15426-1 (linear barcode verifier compliance standard) or ISO 15426-2 (2d barcode verifier compliance standard)
Barcode Verifier Manufacturers (partial list)

★ RJS/Printronix (linear)

★ Hand Held Products (linear)

★ Webscan (linear and 2D)

★ Auto ID Solutions (2D)

★ Stratix (linear)

★ Axicon (linear)

★ REA Elektronik GmbH (linear)

Benefits of using barcodes

In point-of-sale management, the use of barcodes can provide very detailed up-to-date information on key aspects of the business, enabling decisions to be made much more quickly and with more confidence. For example:

★ Fast-selling items can be identified quickly and automatically reordered to meet consumer demand,

★ Slow-selling items can be identified, preventing a build-up of unwanted stock,

★ The effects of repositioning a given product within a store can be monitored, allowing fast-moving more profitable items to occupy the best space,

★ Historical data can be used to predict seasonal fluctuations very accurately.

★ Items may be repriced on the shelf to reflect both sale prices and price increases.
Besides sales and inventory tracking, barcodes are very useful in shipping/receiving/tracking.

★ When a manufacturer packs a box with any given item, a Unique Indentifying Number (UID) can be assigned to the box.

★ A relational database can be created to relate the UID to relevant information about the box; such as order number, items packed, qty packed, final destination, etc…

★ The information can be transmitted through a communication system such as Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) so the retailer has the information about a shipment before it arrives.

★ Tracking results when shipments are sent to a Distribution Center (DC) before being forwarded to the final destination.

★ When the shipment gets to the final destination, the UID gets scanned, and the store knows where the order came from, what's inside the box, and how much to pay the manufacturer.
The reason bar codes are business friendly is that bar code scanners are relatively low costing and extremely accurate – only about 1/100,000 entries will be wrong.

Types of barcodes

Linear barcodes

Symbology	Cont/Disc	Two/Many	Uses
Plessey	Continuous	Two	Catalogs, store shelves, inventory
U.P.C.	Continuous	Many	Worldwide retail, GS1 approved
Codabar	Discrete	Two	Old format used in libraries, blood banks, airbills
Code 25 – Non-interleaved 2 of 5	Continuous	Two	Industrial (NO)
Code 25 – Interleaved 2 of 5	Continuous	Two	Wholesale, Libraries (NO)
Code 39	Discrete	Two	Various
Code 93	Continuous	Many	Various
Code 128	Continuous	Many	Various
Code 128A	Continuous	Many	Various
Code 128B	Continuous	Many	Various
Code 128C	Continuous	Many	Various
Code 11	Discrete	Two	Telephones
CPC Binary	Discrete	Two	Post office
DUN 14	Continuous	Many	Various
EAN 2		Many	Addon code (Magazines), GS1 approved
EAN 5	Continuous	Many	Addon code (Books), GS1 approved
EAN 8, EAN 13	Continuous	Many	Worldwide retail, GS1 approved
GS1-128 (formerly known as UCC/EAN-128), incorrectly referenced as EAN 128 and UCC 128	Continuous	Many	Various, GS1 approved
GS1 DataBar formerly Reduced Space Symbology (RSS)	Continuous	Many	Various, GS1 approved
ITF-14	Continuous	Many	Non-retail packaging levels, GS1 approved
Latent image barcode	Neither	Tall/short	Color print film
Pharmacode	Neither	Two	Pharmaceutical Packaging
PLANET	Continuous	Tall/short	United States Postal Service
POSTNET	Continuous	Tall/short	United States Postal Service
OneCode	Continuous	Tall/short	United States Postal Service, replaces POSTNET and PLANET symbols
MSI	Continuous	Two	Used for warehouse shelves and inventory
PostBar	Discrete	Many	Post office
RM4SCC / KIX	Continuous	Tall/short	Royal Mail / Royal TPG Post
Telepen	Continuous	Two	Libraries, etc (UK)

Stacked barcodes

Symbology	Notes
Codablock	Stacked 1D barcodes. Base coding 199
Code 16K	Based on 1D Code 128.
Code 49	Stacked 1D barcodes from Intermec Corp.
PDF417	The most common 2D barcode. Public domain.
Micro PDF417

2D barcodes a.k.a. 2D codes

A 'matrix code', also known as a '2D barcode' or simply a '2D code', is a two-dimensional way of representing information. It is similar to a linear (1-dimensional) barcode, but has more data representation capability.

Symbology	Notes
3-DI	Developed by Lynn Ltd.
ArrayTag	From ArrayTech Systems.
Aztec Code	Designed by Andrew Longacre at Welch Allyn (now Hand Held Products). Public domain.
Small Aztec Code	Space-saving version of Aztec code.
bCODE	An SMS text code sent to mobile devices and read photographically.
Bullseye	The barcode tested in a Kroger store in Cincinnati. It used concentric bars.
Codablock	Stacked 1D barcodes.
Code 1	Public domain.
Code 16K	Based on 1D Code 128.
Code 49	Stacked 1D barcodes from Intermec Corp.
Color code	Mainly used for cell phones in Korea.
CP Code	From CP Tron, Inc.
Datamatrix	From RVSI Acuity CiMatrix/Siemens. Believed to be public domain, but this status is being challenged. See Datamatrix#Patent Issues for details.
Datastrip Code	From Datastrip, Inc.
Dot Code A	Designed for the unique identification of items.
EZcode	Designed for decoding by cameraphones. http://www.scanbuy.com/decoder.htm
High Capacity Color Barcode	Developed by Microsoft; licensed by ISAN-IA.
HueCode	From Robot Design Associates. Uses greyscale or colour.
INTACTA.CODE	From INTACTA Technologies, Inc.
InterCode	From Iconlab, Inc. The standard 2D barcode in Korea. All 3 Korean mobile carriers put the scanner program of this code into their handsets to access mobile internet, as a default embedded program.
MaxiCode	Used by United Parcel Service. Now Public Domain
mCode	Developed by Nextcode Corporation specifically for camera phone scanning applications. Designed to enable advanced cell mobile applications with standard camera phones.
MiniCode	From Omniplanar, Inc.
PDF417	Originated by Symbol Technologies Public Domain. The most common 2D barcode.
Micro PDF417	Facilitates codes too small to be used in PDF417.
PDMark	Developer by Ardaco.
PaperDisk	High density code — used both for data heavy applications (10K-1 MB) and camera phones (50+ bits). Developed and patented by Cobblestone Software
Optar	Developed by Twibright Labs and published as free software. Aims at maximum data storage density, for storing data on paper. 200kB per A4 page with laser printer.
QR Code	Developed, patented and owned by TOYOTA subsidiary Denso Wave initially for car parts management. Now public domain. Can encode Japanese Kanji and Kana characters, music, images, URLs, emails. De-facto standard for Japanese cell phones.
Semacode	A Data Matrix code used to encode URLs for applications using cellular phones with cameras.
SmartCode	From InfoImaging Technologies.
Snowflake Code	From Marconi Data Systems, Inc.
ShotCode	Circular barcodes for camera phones by OP3. Originally from High Energy Magic Ltd in name Spotcode. Before that probably know as TRIPCode.
SuperCode	Public domain.
Trillcode	From Lark Computers. Designed to work with mobile devices camera or webcam PC. Can encode a variety of "actions".
UltraCode	Black-and-white & colour versions. Public domain. Invented by Jeffrey Kaufman and Clive Hohberger.
VeriCode, VSCode	From Veritec, Inc.
WaterCode	High-density 2D Barcode(440bytes/cm2) From MarkAny Inc.

How Are Bar Codes Made?

Machines (printers) print bar codes. People or computer programs tell the printer what to print based on the rules of the code and the data desired. The rules are generated by a person based on his/her ability to invent them, hopefully, but not always, based on printer tolerance and wand or scanner accuracy’s. Machines (wands or scanners) then read the barcode, hopefully based on the rules used to invent the code. This last step can easily be ignored, due to poor documentation, lost history or bad intuition, resulting in read failure. Intuition alone does not work with bar codes because machines do not “see” or “think” like people. The obvious failed in 1970 when the inferior Delta B code was invented as an improvement over the superior Delta A code.

See also

★ Automated identification and data capture (AIDC)

★ Barcode printer

★ Barcode scanner

★ Data Matrix

★ Global Trade Item Number

★ Inventory control system

★ ISBN

★ RFID

★ Semacode

★ Semapedia

★ Sms barcode

★ Supply Chain Management

★ Universal Product Code (UPC)

References

1. Some Hot North American RFID Applications, RFID Radio
2. From Punched Cards To Bar Codes, , Benjamin, Nelson, ,
3. Scanning the Globe, , Nicholas, Varchaver, Fortune,
4. From Punched Cards To Bar Codes, , Benjamin, Nelson, ,

Further reading

★ ''Automating Management Information Systems: Barcode Engineering and Implementation'' – Harry E. Burke, Thomson Learning, ISBN 0-442-20712-3

★ ''Automating Management Information Systems: Principles of Barcode Applications'' – Harry E. Burke, Thomson Learning, ISBN 0-442-20667-4

★ ''The Bar Code Book'' – Roger C. Palmer, Helmers Publishing, ISBN 0-911261-09-5, 386 pages

★ ''The Bar Code Manual'' – Eugene F. Brighan, Thompson Learning, ISBN 0-03-016173-8

★ ''Handbook of Bar Coding Systems'' – Harry E. Burke, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, ISBN 978-0-442-21430-2, 219 pages

★ ''Lines of Communication'' – Craig K. Harmon, Helmers Publishing, ISBN 0-911261-07-9, 425 pages

★ ''Punched Cards to Bar Codes'' – Benjamin Nelson, Helmers Publishing, ISBN 0-911261-12-5, 434 pages

★ ''Revolution at the Checkout Counter: The Explosion of the Bar Code'' – Stephen A. Brown, Harvard Univ Press, ISBN 0-674-76720-9

External links

★

★ ANSI Health Industry Bar Code (HIBC) Supplier Labeling Standard