BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLE

The 'electric car', 'EV', or simply 'electric vehicle' is a 'battery electric vehicle' (BEV) that utilizes chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs. Electric vehicles use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion engines (ICEs). Vehicles using both electric motors and ICEs are examples of hybrid vehicles, and are not considered pure BEVs because they operate in a charge-sustaining mode. Hybrid vehicles with batteries that can be charged externally to displace some or all of their ICE power and gasoline fuel are called plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV), and are pure BEVs during their charge-depleting mode. BEVs are usually automobiles, light trucks, neighborhood electric vehicles, motorcycles, motorized bicycles, electric scooters, golf carts, milk floats, forklifts and similar vehicles.
BEVs were among the earliest automobiles, and are more energy-efficient than internal combustion, fuel cell, and most other types of vehicles. BEVs produce no exhaust fumes, and minimal pollution if charged from most forms of renewable energy. Many are capable of acceleration exceeding that of conventional vehicles, are quiet, and do not produce noxious fumes. It has been suggested that, because BEVs reduce dependence on petroleum, they enhance national security, and mitigate global warming by alleviating the greenhouse effect.
Historically, BEVs and PHEVs have had issues with high battery costs, limited travel distance between battery recharging, charging time, and battery lifespan, which have limited widespread adoption. Ongoing battery technology advancements have addressed many of these problems; many models have recently been prototyped, and a handful of future production models have been announced. Toyota, Honda, Ford and General Motors all produced BEVs in the 90s in order to comply with the California Air Resources Board's Zero Emission Vehicle Mandate, which was later defeated by the manufacturers and the federal government. The major US automobile manufacturers have been accused of deliberately sabotaging their electric vehicle production efforts.^[1]Who killed the electric car? (website)
The price of an EV is set by market factors not cost. For equivalent production volumes battery EVs should be cheaper than internal combustion engine vehicles because they have many fewer parts. This also means they are cheaper to maintain. They are less expensive to operate by a factor of ten over gasoline. Using regenerative braking, a feature which is standard on electric cars, allows hybrids to get about double the fuel efficiency of regular cars.
In general terms a battery electric vehicle is a rechargeable electric vehicle. Other examples of rechargeable electric vehicles are ones that store electricity in ultracapacitors, or in a flywheel.

Contents

Relation with hybrid vehicles

History

Regulation in California

Selected production vehicles

Use in the United States

Comparison to internal combustion vehicles

Cost

Energy efficiency and carbon dioxide emissions

Maintenance

Acceleration performance

Batteries

Charging

Connectors

Travel range before recharging and trailers

Replacing

Re-filling

Uploading and grid buffering

Lifespan

Safety

Future

Hobbyists, conversions, and racing

Controversy

Proponents' arguments

Opponents' arguments

See also

References

External links

Patents

Organizations

News stories

Relation with hybrid vehicles

Vehicles using both electric motors and ICEs are examples of hybrid vehicles , and are not considered pure BEVs (also called all-electric vehicle) because they operate in a charge-sustaining mode. Hybrid vehicles with batteries that can be charged externally to displace some or all of their ICE power and gasoline fuel are called plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV), and are pure BEVs during their charge-depleting mode. If batteries cannot be charged externally are called regular hybrids.
Historically, BEVs and PHEVs have had issues with high battery costs, limited travel distance between battery recharging, charging time, and battery lifespan, which have limited widespread adoption. Ongoing battery technology advancements have addressed many of these problems; many models have recently been prototyped, and a handful of future production models have been announced. Toyota, Honda, Ford and General Motors all produced BEVs in the 90s in order to comply with the California Air Resources Board's Zero Emission Vehicle Mandate, which was later defeated by the manufacturers and the federal government. The major US automobile manufacturers have been accused of deliberately sabotaging their electric vehicle production efforts.^[1]Who killed the electric car? (website)

History

Main articles: History of the electric vehicle




BEVs were among some of the earliest automobiles — electric vehicles predate gasoline and diesel. Between 1832 and 1839 (the exact year is uncertain), Scottish businessman Robert Anderson invented the first crude electric carriage. Professor Sibrandus Stratingh of Groningen, the Netherlands, designed the small-scale electric car, built by his assistant Christopher Becker in 1835.
The improvement of the storage battery, by Frenchmen Gaston Plante in 1865 and Camille Faure in 1881, paved the way for electric vehicles to flourish. France and Great Britain were the first nations to support the widespread development of electric vehicles.^[3] In November 1881 French inventor Gustave Trouvé demonstrated a working three-wheeled automobile at the International Exhibition of Electricity in Paris.^[4]
Just prior to 1900, before the pre-eminence of powerful but polluting internal combustion engines, electric automobiles held many speed and distance records. Among the most notable of these records was the breaking of the 100 km/h (60 mph) speed barrier, by Camille Jenatzy on April 29, 1899 in his 'rocket-shaped' vehicle Jamais Contente, which reached a top speed of 105.88 km/h (65.79 mph).
BEVs, produced in the USA by Anthony Electric, Baker, Detroit, Edison, Studebaker, and others during the early 20th Century for a time out-sold gasoline-powered vehicles. Due to technological limitations and the lack of transistor-based electric technology, the top speed of these early electric vehicles was limited to about 32 km/h (20 mph). These vehicles were successfully sold as town cars to upper-class customers and were often marketed as suitable vehicles for women drivers due to their clean, quiet and easy operation. Electrics did not require hand-cranking to start.
The introduction of the electric starter by Cadillac in 1913 simplified the task of starting the internal combustion engine, formerly difficult and sometimes dangerous. This innovation contributed to the downfall of the electric vehicle, as did the mass-produced and relatively inexpensive Ford Model T, which had been produced for four years, since 1908.^[5] Internal-combustion vehicles advanced technologically, ultimately becoming more practical than — and out-performing — their electric-powered competitors.
Another blow to BEVs in the USA was the loss of Edison's direct current (DC) electric power transmission system in the ''War of Currents''. This deprived BEV users of a convenient source of DC electricity to recharge their batteries. As the technology of rectifiers was still in its infancy, changing alternating current to DC required a costly rotary converter.
Battery electric vehicles became popular for some limited range applications. Forklifts were BEVs when they were introduced in 1923 by Yale[1] and some battery electric fork lifts are still produced. BEV golf carts have been available for many years, including early models by Lektra in 1954.[2] Their popularity led to their use as neighborhood electric vehicles and expanded versions became available which were partially "street legal".
By the late 1930s, the electric automobile industry had completely disappeared, with battery-electric traction being limited to niche applications, such as certain industrial vehicles.
The 1947 invention of the point-contact transistor marked the beginning of a new era for BEV technology. Within a decade, Henney Coachworks had joined forces with National Union Electric Company, the makers of Exide batteries, to produce the first modern electric car based on transistor technology, the Henney Kilowatt, produced in 36-volt and 72-volt configurations. The 72-volt models had a top speed approaching 96 km/h (60 mph) and could travel nearly an hour on a single charge. Despite the improved practicality of the Henney Kilowatt over previous electric cars, it was too expensive, and production was terminated in 1961. Even though the Henney Kilowatt never reached mass production volume, their transistor-based electric technology paved the way for modern EVs.
After California indicated that it would kill its ZEV Mandate, Toyota offered the last 328 RAV4-EV for sale to the general public during six months (ending on Nov. 22, 2002). All the rest were only leased, and with minor exceptions those models were withdrawn from the market and destroyed by manufacturers (other than Toyota). Toyota not only supports the 328 Toyota RAV4-EV in the hands of the general public, still all running at this date, but also supports hundreds in fleet usage. From time to time, Toyota RAV4-EV come up for sale on the used market, at prices that have ranged up to the mid 60 thousands of dollars. These are highly prized by solar homeowners who wish to charge their cars from their solar electric rooftop systems.
As of July, 2006, there are between 60,000 and 76,000 low-speed, battery powered vehicles in use in the US, up from about 56,000 in 2004 according to Electric Drive Transportation Association estimates.^[6]

Regulation in California

Since the late 1980s, electric vehicles have been promoted in the US through the use of tax credits. BEVs are the most common form of what is defined by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) as zero emission vehicle (ZEV) passenger automobiles, because they produce no emissions while being driven. The CARB had set a minimum quota for the use of ZEVs, but it was withdrawn after complaints by auto manufacturers that it was economically infeasible due to an alleged "lack of consumer demand".
The California program was designed by the CARB to reduce air pollution and not specifically to promote electric vehicles. So the zero emissions requirement in California was replaced by a combined requirement of a very small number of ZEVs to promote research and development, and a much larger number of partial zero-emissions vehicles (PZEVs), an administrative designation for a ''super ultra low emissions vehicle'' (SULEV), which emit about ten percent of the pollution of ordinary low emissions vehicles and are also certified for zero evaporative emissions.

Selected production vehicles

::''and List of production battery electric vehicles''
Selected list of battery electric vehicles include (in chronological order):^[7]

Name	Comments	Production years	Number produced	Top Speed (mph or km/h)	Cost	Range (mi or km)
Baker Electric	The first electric car and it was reputedly easy to drive	1899-1915	?	14 mph or 22.5 km/h	US $2300 (1,727 €)	50 miles (80 km)
Detroit Electric	Sold mainly to women and physicians.	1907-39	<5000	20 mph or 32 km/h	>US $3,000 or 2,253 € depending on options	80 miles (130 km)
Henney Kilowatt	The first modern (transistor-based) electric car and outfitted with modern hydraulic brakes.	1958–60	<100	60 mph or 97 km/h	?	?
General Motors EV1	For lease only, all recovered from customers by General Motors and most destroyed	1996-2003	>1000	80 mph or 129 km/h	~ US $40K or 30,047€ , without subsidies	160 miles (257 km)
Honda EV Plus	First BEV from a major automaker without lead-acid batteries. 80–110 mile range (130–180 km); 24 twelve volt NiMH batteries	1997–99	~300	80+ mph or 129+ km/h	US $455 or 341.84€/month for 36 month lease; or $53,000 or 39,822 € without subsidies	?
Toyota RAV4 EV	Some leased and sold on US east and west coasts, supported. Toyota agreed to stop crushing.	1997–2002	1249	78 mph or 125 km/h	US $40K or 30,051.23 € without subsidies	87 miles (140 km)
Ford Ranger EV	Some sold, most leased; almost all recovered and most destroyed. Ford allowed reconditioning and sale of a limited quantity to former leaseholders by lottery.	1998-2002	1500, perhaps 200 surviving		~ US $50K or 37,565.40 €; subsidized down to $20K or 15,026.16€	74 miles (119 km)
Nissan Altra EV	Mid-sized station wagon designed from the ground up as the first BEV to use Li-ion batteries, 160,934 km or 100,000 + mile battery lifetime	1998–2000	~133	75+ mph or 120+ km/h	US $470/month lease only	120 miles (193 km)
TH!NK City	Two seat, 85 km (52 mile) range, Nickel-cadmium batteries. Next generation vehicle production planned for fall 2007.	1999-2002	1005	56 mph or 90 km/h
Citroën Berlingo Electrique/Peugeot Partner Electric	French-built van of which several thousand have been built by PSA and sold under the Citroën and Peugeot brands. Fitted with Nickel-Cadmium batteries.	1996-2004	ca. 5000	60 mph or 97 km/h	€ 15,000 New (without batteries, leased at € 120/month). Available second hand in UK (some without battery lease)	60 miles @ 40 mph (97 km @ 64 km/h)
REVA	Indian-built city car (sold in England as the "G-Wiz").	2001-	>1800	45 mph or 72 km/h	~ £8K, US $15K or 11,871.05 €	50 miles (80 km)
ZAP Xebra	Chinese built sedan and truck	2006-	500+	40 mph or 64 km/h	$10,000 or 7,513.60 €	40 miles (65 km)

Use in the United States

The following chart and table are based on Department of Energy tables on Alternative Fueled Vehicles, 1992-2000. Figures for electric vehicles include Low-Speed Vehicles (LSVs), which are "four-wheeled motor vehicles whose top speed is between 20 and 25 miles per hour [32 to 40 kilometers per hour]...to be used in residential areas, planned communities, industrial sites, and other areas with low density traffic, and low-speed zones."^[8] LSVs, more commonly known as neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs), were defined in 1998 by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's ''Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard No. 500'', which required safety features such as windshields and seat belts, but not doors or side walls.^[9][10]

Battery Electric Vehicles in the United States
Year	Number
1992	1,607
1993	1,690
1994	2,224
1995	2,860
1996	3,280
1997	4,453
1998	5,243
1999	6,964
2000	11,830
2001	17,847
2002	33,047
2003	45,656
2004	55,852
Average growth	39.1%

Comparison to internal combustion vehicles

BEVs have become much less common than internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV). Therefore, it is often helpful to consider many aspects of BEVs in comparison to ICEVs.

Cost

While it is a dream of gasoline powered vehicles to reach 75 or 100 mpg (3L/100 km), electric vehicles naturally reach the equivalent of 200 mpg (1.5 L/100km) with their typical cost of two to four cents per mile. In contrast, gasoline-powered ICEVs currently cost about four to six times as much.^[11] The total cost of ownership for modern BEVs depends primarily on the cost of the batteries,^[12] the type and capacity of which determine several factors such as travel range, top speed, battery lifetime and recharging time; several trade-offs exist.
Batteries are usually the most expensive component of BEVs, though the price per kWh of charge has fallen rapidly in recent years, and batteries from old or wrecked electric cars can be bought for battery-to-grid mini-power plants. The cost of battery manufacture is substantial, but increasing returns to scale may serve to lower their cost when BEVs are manufactured on the scale of modern internal combustion vehicles. Since the late 1990s, advances in battery technologies have been driven by skyrocketing demand for laptop computers and mobile phones, with consumer demand for more features, larger, brighter displays, and longer battery time driving research and development in the field. The BEV marketplace has reaped the benefits of these advances.
Some batteries can be leased or rented instead of bought (see Think Nordic).
One article indicates that 10 kWh of battery power provides a range of about 20 miles in a Toyota Prius, but this is not a primary source, and does not fit with estimates elsewhere of about 5 miles per KWH.^[13] The Chevy Volt is expected to use 50 MPG when running on the auxiliary power unit (a small onboard generator) - at 33% thermodynamic efficiency (a theoretical maximum) that would mean 12 KWHs for 50 miles, or about 240 watt hours per mile. Teslamotors specified 215 WH/mile. For prices of a kWh of charge with various different battery technologies, see the "Energy/Consumer Price" column in the "Comparison of battery types" section in the rechargeable battery article.
'Ownership costs'
Ownership costs for battery electric cars are higher than for their petrol or diesel equivalents, primarily because their purchase price is higher to begin with. Typically for a new car, or a small van, the price is increased by up to 80%. Very often the batteries are not included within the purchase price because they are also expensive. Instead they are often leased for £60-£70 ($116-$135) a month. If the battery is purchased outright, the owner will also be required to replace it every 3 to 5 years, depending on the battery type.
In the UK other changes in ownership costs include vehicle excise duty or road tax. Electric vehicles are now exempt and so BEV owners will save around £100 per year compared with an average conventional car. There remains some uncertainty about annual depreciation rates and resale values for BEVs due to the unknown length of battery-life and the low demand for battery electrics compared to other green car types. As BEVs lose their value faster than conventional cars depreciation rates are likely to be higher than for a conventional car at this time.
In the UK, BEV users who install additional recharging equipment will face additional financial penalties. Costs per standard charge point are around £500-£2000, depending on the difficulty of installation. Fully installed fast-chargers will cost between £10,000 and £30,000 per point although this depends on whether an on-board or off-board fast-charging system is used.
'Running costs'
Some running costs are significantly less for BEVs than for conventional cars. In particular, fuel costs are very low due to the competitive price of electricity - fuel duty is zero-rated - and to the high efficiency of the vehicles themselves. Taking into account the high fuel economy of battery electric cars, the fuel costs can be as low as 1.0-2.5p per mile (depending on the tariff). For a typical annual mileage of around 10,000 miles per year, switching from a conventional car to a battery electric could save you around £800 in fuel costs. However if the battery hire is considered a running cost, then the saving on fuel is cancelled out by the monthly battery leasing cost. In the New York City metropolitan area, the cost to run a battery (non-hybrid) electric car using standard deep cycle lead acid marine type batteries and is charged from the mains, costs about 3 times more to run than a conventional gasoline car.

Energy efficiency and carbon dioxide emissions

Production and conversion BEVs typically use 0.17 to 0.37 kilowatt-hours per mile (0.1–0.23 kWh/km).^[14][15] Nearly half of this power consumption is due to inefficiencies in charging the batteries. Tesla Motors indicates that the well to wheels power consumption of their li-ion powered vehicle is 0.215 kwh per mile. The US fleet average of 23 miles per gallon of gasoline is equivalent to 1.58 kWh per mile and the 70 MPG Honda Insight uses 0.52 kWh per mile (assuming 36.4 kWh per US gallon of gasoline), so hybrid electric vehicles are relatively energy efficient, and battery electric vehicles are much more energy efficient. A 2001 DOE estimate calculates a battery powered EV at 7 cents/kWh can be driven 43 miles for a dollar and at $1.25/gallon a gasoline vehicle will go 18 miles.