(Redirected from Bottled Water)
A 1.5 liter bottle of water
Bottled water being poured into a glass.
'Bottled water' is
drinking water packaged in
bottles for individual consumption and retail sale.
The water used can be
glacial water,
spring water,
well water,
purified water as well as public water sources (ie, tap water). Many countries, particularly
developed countries, regulate the quality of bottled water through government standards, typically used to ensure that water quality is safe and labels accurately reflect bottle contents. In many
developing countries, however, such standards are variable and are often less stringent than those of developed nations.
Demand
The sales for bottled water are estimated to be between $50 and $100 billion (US) annually and increasing approximately 7 to 10 percent annually. In 2004, total sales were approximately 154 billion liters (41 billion gallons).
[1]
In developed countries, the large demand is driven by factors including perceived convenience, perceived safety versus municipal water, and perceived potability or taste advantages over municipal water. Packaging and advertising work to foster these perceptions, and
brand bottled water in ways similar to branded
soft drinks. Though many municipalities, particularly in the developed world, guarantee safe, potable water, others may be subject to groundwater contamination from commercial
fertilizer,
MTBE, or other contaminants. Violations of tap water standards tend to be highly publicized and widely reported, for example, a 1993
Cryptosporidium outbreak which caused 400,000 people to get sick in
Milwaukee, Wisconsin (see:
Milwaukee Cryptosporidium outbreak).
However, usually in developed countries, the municipal tap water's quality exceeds bottled water, but many people still purchase bottled water to drink at home despite some municipalities' much stricter quality control and treatment, compared to bottled water, which can have minimal treatment. This is especially true in areas of North America, like Toronto.
In developing countries, demand is driven by factors including the lack of potable groundwater in many areas, the lack of reliable or safe municipal water in many urban areas, chemical and organic pollution of ground and well water, and convenience relative to boiling or otherwise treating accessible but potentially contaminated water. Advertising also contributes to water sales in developing countries. Though bottled water may provide an alternative to unsafe drinking water, it does so only for those able to afford it; many of the world's poorest people cannot afford bottled water (UN World Water Development Report 2006).
In 2004, the US bottled water industry surpassed 6.8 Billion gallons of water for that year, an increase of 8.6% over the previous year (Beverage Marketing Corporation, 2005).
Regulation
Regulation of bottled water varies widely by country, with developed nations generally having more regulation and enforcement than developing countries.
Regulation In the United States
In the United States, specific definitions and meanings ("
standards of identity") apply to the most common types of bottled water. Bottled water manufacturers must ensure that their products meet the FDA established standard of identity for bottled water products. A bottled water product bearing a particular statement of identity (e.g., mineral water) must meet the requirements of the standard of identity in order to avoid being misbranded. For example, under the standard of identity regulations bottled water may only be labeled "mineral water" in the United States if it: (1) contains not less than 250 ppm total dissolved solids; (2) comes from a source tapped at one or more bore holes or springs; (3) originates from a hydrogeologically protected source; and (4) contains no added minerals. There are similar definitions for bottled water, drinking water, artesian water, ground water, distilled water, deionized water, reverse osmosis water, purified water, sparkling bottled water, spring water, sterile water and well water. A bottled water product must bear the appropriate name as reflected in the applicable standard of identity definition or it is misbranded.
Nutritional information required on water bottle labels varies from region to region and country to country. Bottled water is regulated by the
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), who demand suppliers use an "approved source", which the FDA defines as:
: [approved source] ''means a source of water...that has been inspected and the water sampled, analyzed, and found to be of a safe and sanitary quality according to applicable laws and regulations of state and local government agencies having jurisdiction.''
However, the FDA does not define guidelines for which regulations may be considered applicable, nor set requirements for water sources in the absence of applicable laws. Additionally, bottled water suppliers are not required to provide details of the water source on the labels. Water bottlers are permitted to sell contaminated water if, and only if, their labeling notes the water contains "excessive bacteria" or "excessive chemical substances". Water bottlers are not required to test for the presence of ''
E. coli'',
cryptosporidium,
giardia,
asbestos, or certain
organic compounds such as
benzenes.
[2]
In the United States, tap water is regulated by the stringent
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Bottled water is regulated under a similar, but significantly less strict set of regulations from the
United States Food and Drug Administration under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act ("FFDCA" or the "Act"), 21 U.S.C. § 301et seq.
[3]
U.S. FDA "Standards of Identity" for Bottled Water
The FDA has established "Standards of Identity" for bottled water products sold in the U.S. Note that other countries have different definitions and standards; some countries have no consistent labeling requirements. Some of the more common U.S. types of bottled water are listed below:
★
Artesian Water - This type of water that originates from a confined
aquifer that has been tapped. The distinguishing feature of water from an artesian aquifer is that it flows from the tap due to gravity; the subterranian water level is at a height greater than that of the location of the tap.
★
Fluoridated Water - This type of water contains
fluoride added within the limitations established in the FDA Code of Federal Regulations. This category includes water classified as "For Infants" or "Nursery."
★
Ground Water - This type of water is from an underground source that is under a pressure equal to or greater than
atmospheric pressure.
★
Mineral Water - This type of water contains at least 250 parts per million total dissolved solids (TDS). It comes from a source tapped at one or more bore holes or spring, and originates from a geologically and physically protected underground water source. No
minerals may be added to this water.
★
Purified water - This type of water has been produced by
distillation,
deionization,
reverse osmosis, or other suitable processes. Purified water may also be referred to as "demineralized water." It meets the definition of "purified water" in the United States Pharmacopoeia.
★
Sparkling Water - This type of water contains the same amount of
carbon dioxide that it had at emergence from the source. The carbon dioxide may be removed and replenished after treatment.
★
Spring Water - This type of water comes from an underground formation from which water flows naturally to the Earth's surface.
★
Sterile Water - This type of water meets the requirements under "sterility tests" in the United States Pharmacopoeia.
★
Well Water - This type of water is taken from a
well.
Markets
The United States is the largest market for bottled water, at 26 billion liters in 2004. On average, this is one 8-ounce glass per person per day. Italy has the highest average consumption per person, at two 8-ounce glasses per person per day.
Consumption by Country
Here is data for global markets in 2004, in billions of liters consumed. As ordered in greatest from least.
[4]
★ All Others 39.9
★ USA 25.8
★ China 11.9
★ Brazil 11.6
★ Italy 10.7
★ Germany 10.3
★ France 8.5
★ Mexico 7.7
★ Indonesia 7.4
★ Spain 5.5
★ India 5.1
★ Total 154.3
Consumption per Person
Per person data is shown below, in average number of liters consumed per person per year.
★ Italy 183.6
★ Mexico 168.5
★ United Arab Emirates 163.5
★ Belgium 148.0
★ France 141.6
★ Spain 136.7
★ Germany 124.9
★ Lebanon 101.4
★ Switzerland 99.6
★ Cyprus 92.0
★ United States 90.5
★ Saudi Arabia 87.8
★ Czech Republic 87.1
★ Austria 82.1
★ Portugal 80.3
★ India 79.6
★ Global Average 24.2
More data and graphs are available
externally.
Producer Revenues
U.S. Bottled Water Market, producer revenues, 2000 – 2006
| Year | Millions of US dollars | Annual Change |
|---|
| 2000 | $6,113.0 | -- |
| 2001 | $6,880.6 | 12.6% |
| 2002 | $7,901.4 | 14.8% |
| 2003 | $8,526.4 | 7.9% |
| 2004 | $9,169.4 | 7.5% |
| 2005 | $10,012.5 | 9.2% |
2006
★ | $10,980.0 | 9.7% |
(
★ ) Preliminary
Source: Beverage Marketing Corporation.
[5][6]
Impact of bottled water
With sales of $11 billion a year
[1], bottled water is a successful product available throughout the world. The behaviors it enables are the subject of vocal criticism. This criticism primarily falls into environmental, economic, and health categories.
Environmental impact
The annual global consumption of bottled water in 2004 is 2000 billion liters,
[2] up 30 percent from the 1000 billion liters consumed five years earlier.
The environmental impact of bottled water includes
★ energy use in manufacturing, storing and transporting bottled water;
★ local effects on water resources; and
★ generation of solid waste.
Energy use in manufacturing, storage and transport
The
Pacific Institute calculates that the process of making the plastic for the water bottles consumed in the U.S. uses approximately 17 million barrels of oil per year. The manufacture of every ton of
PET produces around 3 tons of
carbon dioxide (CO2). Bottling water thus created more than 2.5 million tons of CO2 in 2006.
[7] This corresponds to about 0.1% of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions.
Once the bottle is created and filled with water, large amounts of fossil fuel are expended delivering the water from its source to end user by means of ground transportation. Some bottled water is transported long distances by ship in addition to the distances it travels by truck or rail. It takes a fair amount of oil to move a plastic bottle from where it is made, to where it is filled, then to the store, and finally into the consumer's hand. 250g (0.00025 tons) of CO2 are released for each bottle of
FIJI Water imported to the United States. This includes 93g for manufacturing a bottle in China, 4g for tranporting an empty bottle to
Fiji, and 153g for shipping a full bottle to the United States.
[8]
Overall, the average energy cost to make the plastic, fill the bottle, transport it to market and then deal with the waste would be "like filling up a quarter of every bottle with oil." (
Peter Gleick, an expert on water policy and director at the Pacific Institute in Oakland, California.
[9]
Local effects on water resources
See also:
Global use of fresh water
It also takes water to make a bottle. If a container holds 1 liter it requires 3 to 5 liters of water in its manufacturing process (the higher estimate includes power plant cooling water). By one estimate the total amount of water used to produce and deliver one bottle of imported water is even 6.74 l.
[3]
However, the amount of water used to manufacture and fill water bottles is only a small fraction of the amount of global water withdrawals. Globally, 68% of water is used in irrigation, 15% by industry and 15% for municipal water supply. According to the World Resources Institute, the global human-induced water use was 3,802 billion cubic meter in 2000.
[10] The amount of water abstracted to fill bottles (154 million cubic meter) is only 0.004% ofr this total. Even assuming that 5 liters are used to manufacture a 1-liter bottle the total amount of water abstracted by the bottled water industry is only 0.02% of global water withdrawals. Examples of local environmental impacts of water bottling plants on the availability of water resources should be seen in this perspective.
The local effects of tapping the water sources are also of concern. Because of the high demand companies like Perrier's Zephyrhills are requesting to increase their pumping from a spring on a private ranch in central Florida by 600 percent in the next 10 years. The request was denied by a judge ruling that the pumping could dry up Tampa Bay kitchen sinks, some 37 miles down stream.
[4]
On a local level, water bottlers may adversely affect ground water levels, if they bottle more water than is naturally replenished. Rivers are delicate ecosystems. Tapping springs and
aquifers even on a small scale can alter the movement of sediment in nearby streams, which can in turn disrupt the food supply for fish and other wildlife. "It's a very complicated system, and we don't have a very good predictive understanding of how the properties of the river channel will be affected [by large-scale pumping]," warns Kurt Cuffey, assistant professor of geology at the University of California at Berkeley.
[5]
Saltwater intrusion is another problem with tapping aquifers in coastal areas. In healthy ecosystems along coastal areas there is a natural flow of groundwater that pushes freshwater out against the saltwater, creating a kind of sea wall. When the groundwater is being over used and the flow falters as a result the saltwater will begin to creep underground, ruining drinking water, wetlands, and crops. Saltwater intrusion is already a problem in parts of coastal California, Florida, and New York as a result of the demands -- including water for bottling -- being made on local water supplies.
[6]
Solid waste generation
Though the materials used for water bottles are generally recyclable, 90% of bottles are not
recycled.
[7]
Economic impact
See also:
Water supply and sanitation in Latin America
The economic impact of bottled water consumption is especially relevant in developing countries, where tap water is often of poor quality and where, even if the quality of tap water may be acceptable, it is often difficult to obtain reliable data on the quality of tap water. Therefore those who can afford it do not want to take a risk and switch to bottled water, usually of the type sold in large bottles of 5 gallons. Bottled water use is especially high in countries such as Mexico and Brazil (see above). While the poorest often can't afford bottled water and the richest face little economic constraints in buying bottled water, the cost of bottled water is a significant burden for middle-class households in many developing countries. For example, sales of bottled water in Mexico are estimated at 32 billion Pesos (US$ 3bn) in 2005,
[11] or about US$ 135 per household, which is about twice the level of the average tap water bill. If these funds were available to water utilities they would have the financial means to improve significantly the quality of tap water.
The Wall Street Journal, after seeing the incredible demand for bottled water, is considering it the next best thing to oil and gold.
[8]
In 2004, Andrea Petersen wrote in the Wall Street Journal that "... for the first time, Americans are expected to buy more bottled water than beer or coffee. Sales of bottled water reached $7.7 billion in 2002, up 12% from 2001, according to Beverage Marketing Corp., a New York-based consulting company.”
[9] Bottled water is a big business and with the current trend, everyone trying to get a piece, the individual states and countries are beginning to voice their objections. Many states have voted the big companies not over pump on their soil.
[10]
In Ontario, Canada, a fee has been aimed at commercial and industrial water users to contribute to the cost of managing the water supply. The fee has been dubbed a 'cost recovery regulatory charge'. Those charges are explicitly stated as not a tax but as a fee to create a more sustainable system.
Polaris Institute[11]
Another concern is the "privatization" of water. The United Church of Christ, United Church of Canada, National Council of Churches, National Coalition of American Nuns and Presbyterians
for Restoring Creation are among some of the religious organizations that have raised questions about whether or not this is ethical. They regard the industrial purchase and repackaging at a much higher resale price of a basic resource as an unethical trend.
[12]
Health impact
About 25% of bottled water sold is simply re-processed/used municipal(city) water according to a 1999 study in the United States.
[12] Both
Aquafina from
Pepsi-Cola Company and
Dasani from
The Coca-Cola Company are reprocessed from municipal water systems.
[13][14] Some bottled waters, such as
Penta Water make unverified health benefit claims. About 22 percent of brands that are tested contain, in at least one sample, chemical contaminants at levels above strict state health limits. If consumed over a long period of time, some of these contaminants could cause cancer or other health problems.
[15] In addition, 60 to 70 percent of all bottled water in the U.S. is packaged and sold in a state that is not regulated by the
FDA. In the
United States, 1 in 5 states do not regulate bottled water
[16]. The
FDA reports that:"about 75 percent of bottled water sold in the U.S. comes from natural underground sources, which include rivers, lakes, springs and artesian wells." The other 25% comes from
municipal sources, which are the “sources” of two leading brands of bottled water--Dasani (Coca-Cola) and Aquafina (PepsiCo)
[13].
Bottled water processed with distillation or reverse osmosis lacks
fluoride ions which are sometimes naturally present in
groundwater, or added at a water treatment plant and which has an effect on the inhibition of
cavity formation; the drinking of
distilled water may conceivably increase the risk of tooth decay due to a lack of this element.
[17] People who drink mostly bottled water may wish to use supplemental fluoride, such as is available by prescription from dentists or doctors. However, most people continue to cook with common
tap water and this is thought to potentially provide sufficient fluoride to maintain normal
prophylaxis in many instances. Any other minerals in tap water such as calcium and magnesium are present in such minuscule amounts that their absence is compensated for many thousands of times over by other dietary sources. On the other hand, some people wish to avoid exposure to fluoride, particularly systemic ingestion of fluoride in drinking water, and may choose such bottled water for this feature.
[14]
Bottled water is typically printed with
expiration dates. Even if the water itself is pure, a plastic container may leak chemicals such as
phthalates or
Bisphenol A into the bottled water
[18]. Storage in cool and dark places helps reduce leaching of these chemicals. Industry associations claim "bottled water can be used indefinitely if stored properly."
[19]
If the original water bottled is not pure, especially if it contained biological contaminants, then the water quality will continue to degrade regardless of the storage container or conditions.
[20]
Alternatives to bottled water
In developed countries, municipal water is generally of high quality, and provides a far cheaper alternative to pure or bottled water. In municipalities where the water is of a somewhat lower quality, the use of home filtration systems such as
Brita, Culligan, Kinetico or PUR filters provides potable water at considerably lower cost than pure or bottled water.
In many areas of the world, good municipal water is unavailable. The
United Nations estimates that in 2005, 1.1 billion people lacked access to safe, affordable, drinking water, and two to five million people die every year from preventable water-related diseases. In areas without a consistent supply of safe, potable water, alternatives to bottled water include boiling, filtering, or otherwise processing contaminated water to remove harmful pathogens or chemicals.
Even where advanced water filters are not available, and fuel for boiling is scarce, effective water filters can be made in a few hours from
clay by hand without advanced technology or skills.
[21]. In some areas, water may be obtained from and in the form of
rainwater, stored in a
cistern or
rainwater tank. In rural areas the rain is typically very pure and can be safely consumed without additional treatment or filtration
Ground water obtained through pumps or wells should be monitored for quality to ensure no risk of contamination or build up. Many people in
Bangladesh and
West Bengal,
India are drinking groundwater that has been discovered to be contaminated with
arsenic after wells were drilled to protect the population from the contaminated surface water.
Many countries such as the
United Kingdom, have water that is adequate for drinking on tap, due to filters in the plumbing infrastructure. In these countries, it is sometimes seen as wasteful and pretentious to consume bottled water.
See also
★
Reuse of water bottles
Brands
★ 1-Litre
★
Arrowhead
★
Aquadyne
★
Aquafina
★
Aquapod
★
Bisleri
★
Ciel Purificada
★
Crystal Geyser
★
Dasani
★
Deer Park
★
Dejà Blue
★
Ethos
★
Elsenham
★
Evian
★
FIJI water
★
Galvanina
★
Gerolsteiner
★
Iceland Pure Spring Water
★
Lauquen
★
Ozarka
★
Pennine Spring
★
Perrier
★
Poland Spring
★
Propel Fitness Water
★
Ramlösa
★
San Pellegrino
★
Speyside Glenlivet
★
Spa
★
Sparkletts
★
Talking Rain
★
Ten Thousand B.C.
★
Ty Nant
★
Vata
★
Voss
★
Zephyrhills
References
1. Gleick, P.H. 2004. "Bottled Water." In P.H. Gleick (editor), The World's Water 2004-2005: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources. Island Press, Washington, D.C.
2. Gaping Holes in Government Bottled Water Regulation
3. FD&C Act Chapter IV
4.
5. Beverage Marketing Corporation 2005 Market report findings
6. Beverage Marketing Corporation 2006 Market report findings
7. Pacific Institute - Bottled Water and Energy: A Fact Sheet
8. Estimate by Pablo Päster as quoted on Treehugger
9. Pacific Institute - Bottled Water and Energy: A Fact Sheet and (Seattle P.I.))
10. World Resources Institute 2005
11. La Jornada
12. According to a four-year study of drinking water in the United States by the Natural Resources Defense Council, see National Geographic 2006 and NRDC
13. Bottled Water: Pure Drink or Pure Hype?
14. Is your bottled water coming from a faucet?
15. Drinking Water: In Brief: FAQ
16. Is bottled water really better than tap?
17. Bottled Water Cited as Contributing to Cavity Comeback
18. Firefighters help sponsor CancerSmart Consumer Guide
19. Canadian Bottled Water Association
20. Microbial quality of domestic and imported brands of bottled water in Trinidad.
21. Water Filter
External links
★
Corporate Accountability International's campaign 'Think Outside the Bottle'- challenging corporate control of water and the bottled water industry
★
Benefits of drinking water for health
★
International Bottled Water Association
★
Bottled Twaddle: Is bottled water tapped out?, from
Scientific American
★
Bottled Water: Pure Drink or Pure Hype? - extensive study of bottled water quality from NRDC
★
''E the Environmental Magazine'' piece on bottled water (Oct 2003).
★
Researcher Dispels Myth of Dioxins and Plastic Water Bottles: Dr. Rolf Halden says "There are no dioxins in plastics." but "If you heat up plastics, you could increase the leaching of
phthalates" and "It is very important to drink adequate amounts of water ... Unless you are drinking really bad water, you are more likely to suffer from the adverse effects of dehydration than from the minuscule amounts of chemical contaminants present in your water supply."
★ Emily Arnold, Earth Policy Institute 2006 Press release,
Bottled Water: Pouring Resources Down the Drain'
★ British Bottled Water Producers
[15]
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