CALIFORNIA CONDOR

The 'California Condor', ''Gymnogyps californianus'', is a species of North American bird in the New World vulture family Cathartidae. Currently, this condor inhabits only the western coastal mountains of the United States, Baja California, and the Grand Canyon. It is the only surviving member of the genus ''Gymnogyps'', though fossil members are known.
It is a large, black vulture with patches of white on the underside of the wings and a largely bald head with skin color ranging from yellowish to a glowing red, depending on the bird’s mood. It has the largest wingspan of any bird found in North America and is one of the heaviest. The condor is a scavenger and eats large amounts of carrion. They are one of the world’s longest-living birds, with lifespans of up to fifty years.
Though never great, condor numbers dramatically declined in the 1800s due to poaching, lead poisoning, and habitat destruction. Eventually, a conservation plan was put in place that led to the capture of all the remaining wild condors in 1987. These 22 birds were bred at the San Diego Wild Animal Park and the Los Angeles Zoo. Numbers rose through captive breeding and, beginning in 1991, condors have been reintroduced into the wild. The project is the most expensive species conservation project ever undertaken in the United States. The California Condor is currently one of the world's rarest bird species. As of 2005, there were only 273 individuals.^[1]
The condor is a significant bird to many Californian Native American groups and takes an important role in several of their traditional myths.

Contents

Taxonomy

Evolutionary history

Description

Distribution and habitat

Ecology and behavior

Diet

Reproduction

Conservation

Relationship with humans

References

Cited texts

External links

Taxonomy

The California Condor was described by English naturalist George Shaw in 1797 as ''Vultur californianus''. It was originally classified in the same genus as the Andean Condor (''V. gryphus''), but due to the Andean Condor's slightly different markings, slightly longer wings, and tendency to actually kill small animals to eat,^[2] the California Condor has now been placed in its own monotypic genus. The generic name ''Gymnogyps'' is derived from the Greek ''gymnos''/γυμνος "naked" or "bare", and ''gyps''/γυψ "vulture",^[3] while the specific name ''californianus'' comes from its location in California. The word condor itself is derived from the Peruvian ''cuntur''.^[4]
Together with the other 6 species of New World vultures, the California Condor is classified in the family Cathartidae, which is distinct from the similar-appearing 15 species of Old World vultures of the family Accipitridae, a family which also includes falcons, hawks, and eagles.
Though both are similar and have similar ecological roles, the New World and Old World Vultures evolved from different ancestors in different parts of the world. Just how different the two are is currently under debate, with some authorities suggesting that the New World vultures are more closely related to storks,^[5] whereas others maintain their overall position in the order Falconiformes along with the Old World vultures.^[6] A third placement is for them to be in their own order, Cathartiformes.^[7]

Evolutionary history

The genus ''Gymnogyps'' is a prime example of a relict distribution. During the Pleistocene epoch, this genus was widespread across the Americas. From fossils, the Floridan ''Gymnogyps kofordi'' from the Early Pleistocene and the Peruvian ''Gymnogyps howardae'' from the Late Pleistocene have been described.^[8] A condor found in Late Pleistocene deposits on Cuba was initially described as ''Antillovultur varonai'', but has since been recognized as another member of ''Gymnogyps''. It may even have been subspecies of the California Condor.^[8]

Today's California Condor is the sole surviving member of ''Gymnogyps'' and has no accepted subspecies; although its range greatly contracted during the Holocene, the species always had a small and inbred population. However, there is a Late Pleistocene palaeosubspecies, ''Gymnogyps californianus amplus'', which occurred over much of the bird's historical range – even extending into Florida – but was larger, having about the same weight as the Andean Condor. This bird also had a wider bill.^[10] As the climate changed during the last ice age, the entire population became smaller until it had evolved into the ''Gymnogyps californianus californianus'' of today.^[11][12]

Description

The adult California Condor is a uniform black, with the exception, especially in the male, of large triangular patches or bands of white on the underside of the wings. It has gray legs and feet, an ivory-colored bill, a frill of black feathers nearly surrounding the base of the neck, and brownish red eyes.^[13] The juvenile is mostly a mottled dark brown with blackish coloration on the head. It has mottled gray instead of white on the underside of its flight feathers. ^[14]
As an adaptation for hygiene, the condor's head and neck have few feathers, which exposes the skin to the sterilizing effects of dehydration and solar ultraviolet light at high altitudes. The skin of the head and neck is capable of flushing noticeably in response to emotional state, a capability that can serve as communication between individuals.^[15] The skin color varies from yellowish to a glowing reddish-orange.^[13]
Contrary to the usual rule among true birds of prey, the female is smaller than the male. Overall length can range from 46 to 53 inches (117 to 135 cm) and the wingspan averages around 9.1 feet (2.77 m).^[17] Their weight can range from 15.5 to 31 pounds (7 to 14 kg), with estimations of average weight ranging from 17.6 to 20 pounds (8 to 9 kg). Most measurements are from birds raised in captivity, so determining if there are any major differences in measurements between wild and captive condors is difficult.
California Condors have the largest wingspan of any North American bird. They are surpassed in both body length and height only by the Trumpeter Swan and the introduced Mute Swan. The American White Pelican and Whooping Crane also have longer bodies than the condor. Condors are so large that they can be mistaken for a small, distant airplane, which possibly occurs more often than they are mistaken for other species of bird.^[18]
The middle toe of the California Condor's foot is greatly elongated and the hind one is only slightly developed. The talons of all the toes are straight and blunt, and are thus more adapted to walking than gripping. This is more similar to their supposed relatives the storks^[19][20] than to birds of prey and Old World vultures, which use their feet as weapons or organs of prehension.

Distribution and habitat

In relatively modern times, the California Condor roamed across the American Southwest. However, the last wild bird was taken into captivity for the breeding program in 1987. Recently, captive-bred condors have been released in southern California, Baja California, and at the Grand Canyon.^[17]
The condors live in rocky scrubland, coniferous forests, and oak savannas.^[17] They are often found near cliffs or large trees, which they use as nesting sites. Individual birds have a huge range and have been known to travel up to 150 miles (250 kilometers) in search of carrion.

Ecology and behavior

When in flight, the movements of the condor are remarkably graceful. The lack of a large sternum to anchor their correspondingly large flight muscles restricts them to being primarily soarers. The birds flap their wings when taking off from the ground, but after attaining a moderate elevation they largely glide, sometimes going for miles without a single flap of their wings. They have been known to fly up to speeds of 55 mph (88.5 km/h) and as high as 15,000 feet (4572 meters).^[23] They prefer to roost on high perches from which they can launch without any major wing-flapping effort. Often, these birds are seen soaring near rock cliffs, using thermals to aid them in keeping aloft.^[24]
The California Condor has one of the longer life spans of birds, reaching up to fifty years. If they survive to adulthood, the condor has few natural predators other than humans.^[25] Condors also do not have any vocal cords, so their vocal display is limited to grunts and hisses. ^[15] Condors bathe frequently and can spend hours a day preening their feathers.^[23] Condors also undergo urohydrosis, or defecate on their legs, to reduce their body temperature.^[15] There is a well-developed social structure within large groups of condors, with competition to determine a pecking order by body language, competitive play behavior, and a wide variety of vocalizations. This social hierarchy is displayed especially when the birds feed, with the dominant birds eating before the younger ones.^[29]

Diet

Wild condors inhabit large territories, often traveling 150 miles (250 km) a day in search of carrion.^[30] In the early days of its existence as a species, it is thought that the California Condor lived off of the carcasses of the "megafauna", which are now extinct in North America. They still prefer to feast on large, terrestrial mammalian carcasses such as deer, goats, sheep, donkey, horse, pigs, mountain lions, bears, or cattle. Alternatively, they may feed on the bodies of smaller mammals, such as rabbits or coyotes, aquatic mammals, such as whales and sea lions, or salmon. Bird and reptile carcasses are rarely eaten. Since they do not have a sense of smell,^[31] they spot these corpses by looking for other scavengers, like smaller vultures and eagles, who cannot rip through the tougher hides of these larger animals with the efficiency of the larger condor. They can usually intimidate other scavengers away from the carcass, with the exception of bears, which will ignore them, and Golden Eagles, which will fight a condor over a kill or a carcass.^[13] In the wild they are intermittent eaters, often going for between a few days to two weeks without eating,^[30] then gorging themselves on two to three pounds (1-1.5 kilograms) of meat at once, sometimes to the point of being unable to lift themselves off the ground.^[34]

Reproduction

Condors begin to look for a mate when they reach sexual maturity at the age of six.^[23] To attract a prospective mate, the male condor performs a display. In the display, the male turns his head red and puffs out his neck feathers. He then spreads his wings and slowly approaches the female. If the female lowers her head to accept the male, the condors become mates for life.^[29] The pair makes a simple nest in caves or on cliff clefts, especially ones with nearby roosting trees and open spaces for landing. A mated female lays one or two bluish-white eggs every other February or March. The eggs weigh about 10 ounces (280 grams) and measure from 3.5 to 4.7 inches (90 to 120 mm) in length and 2.6 inches (67 mm) in width. If the chick or egg is lost or removed, the parents "double clutch", or lay another egg to take the lost one's place. Researchers and breeders take advantage of this behavior to double the reproductive rate by taking the first egg away for hand-rearing; this induces the parents to lay a second egg, which the condors are sometimes allowed to raise. ^[37]
The eggs hatch after 53 to 60 days of incubation by both parents. Chicks are born with their eyes open and sometimes can take up to a week to hatch from their egg.^[15] The young are covered with a grayish down until they are almost as large as their parents. They are able to fly after five to six months, but continue to roost and hunt with their parents until they turn two, at which point they are displaced by a new clutch.^[13]

Conservation

At the time of human settlement of the Americas, the California Condor was widespread across North America. However, climate changes associated with the end of the last ice age and the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna led to a subsequent reduction in range and population. Prehistorically, California Condors are known from Arizona,^[40] Nevada,^[41] New Mexico,^[42][43] and Texas.^[44]
In modern times, a wide variety of causes helped lead to the condor's decline. The condor's fickle mating habits and resulting low birth rate combined with a late age of sexual maturity make the bird vulnerable to loss of population. Significant damage to the condor population is also attributed to poaching, especially for museum specimens,^[45] lead poisoning (from eating animals containing lead shot), DDT poisoning,^[46] electric power lines, egg collecting, and habitat destruction. During the California Gold Rush, some condors were even kept as pets.^[47]
In addition to this, cattle ranchers observed condors feeding on the dead young of their cattle and assumed that the birds killed the cattle – a fallacy which led to their extinction in some parts of the western United States. This belief was so deeply ingrained that the reintroduction of condors to the Grand Canyon was challenged by distant cattle ranchers, who had been taught by their parents that the bird was a predator of calves and lambs.^[48]
As the condor's population continued to decline, discussion began about starting a captive breeding program for the condors. Opponents to this plan argued that the condors had the right to freedom, that capturing all of the condors would change the species' habits forever, and that the cost was too great.^[49] However, the project got the approval of the United States Government and the capture of the remaining wild condors was completed on Easter Sunday, 1987, when AC-9, the last wild condor, was captured.^[50] There were only 22 condors left, all in captivity. The captive breeding program, led by the San Diego Wild Animal Park and Los Angeles Zoo, got off to a slow start due to the condor's mating habits. However, utilizing the bird's ability to double clutch, biologists began removing the first egg from the nest and raising it with puppets, allowing the parents to lay another egg.
As the number of condors grew, attention began to focus on releasing some back into the wild. In 1988, the US Fish and Wildlife Service began a reintroduction experiment involving the release of captive Andean Condors into the wild in California. Only females were released to eliminate the possibility of accidentally introducing a South American species into the United States. The experiment was a success, and all the Andean Condors were recaptured and re-released in South America.^[23] Condors were released in 1991 and 1992 in California, and again in 1996 in Arizona near the Grand Canyon.^[17] Though the birth rate remains low in the wild, their numbers are increasing steadily through regular releases of captive-reared adolescents.

Unanticipated deaths among these populations occurred due to contact with Golden Eagles, power lines, and other factors such as lead poisoning. Since 1994, captive-bred California Condors have been trained to avoid power lines and people. Since the implementation of this aversion conditioning program, only two condors have died as a result of contact with power lines. ^[53] Lead poisoning due to fragmented lead bullets in large game waste is a particularly big problem for condors due to their extremely strong digestive juices;^[54] this lead waste is not as much of a problem for other avian scavengers such as the Turkey Vulture and Common Raven. This problem is expected to be addressed by a requirement that hunters use solid copper bullets when hunting in the condor's range. ^[55]
In recent times, nesting milestones have been reached by the reintroduced condors. In 2003, the first nestling fledged in the wild since 1981.^[48] In March 2006, a pair of California Condors attempted to nest in a hollow tree near Big Sur, California. This was the first time in more than 100 years in which a pair of California Condors had been seen nesting in Northern California.^[57] In early 2007, a California condor laid an egg in Mexico for the first time since at least the 1930s.^[58]
The 2005 population was 273, including 127 in the wild,^[1] and the rest in the San Diego Wild Animal Park, the Los Angeles Zoo, or the World Center for Birds of Prey in Boise, Idaho.
The California Condor conservation project is also the most expensive species conservation project in United States history,^[60] costing over 35 million dollars, including 20 million federal and state dollars, since World War II.^[61]

Relationship with humans

Throughout its historic range, the California Condor has been a popular subject of mythology and an important symbol to Native Americans. Unusually,^[62] this bird takes on different roles in the storytelling of the different tribes.
The Wiyot tribe of California say that the condor recreated mankind after Above Old Man wiped humanity out with a flood.^[63] However, other tribes, like California’s Mono, viewed the condor as a destroyer, not a creator. They say that Condor seized humans, cut off their heads, and drained their blood so that it would flood Ground Squirrel’s home. Condor then seized Ground Squirrel after he fled, but Ground Squirrel managed to cut off Condor’s head when Condor paused to take a drink of the blood.^[64] According to the Yokut tribe, the condor sometimes ate the moon, causing the lunar cycle, and his wings caused eclipses.^[65] The Chumash tribe of Southern California believed that the condor was once a white bird, but it turned black when it flew too close to a fire.^[65]
Condor bones have been found in Native American graves, as have condor feather headdresses. Cave paintings of condors have also been discovered.^[67] Some tribes ritually killed condors to make ceremonial clothing out of their feathers. Shamans then danced while wearing these to reach the upper and lower spiritual worlds. Whenever a shaman died, his clothes were said to be cursed,^[68] so new clothing had to be made for his successor.
Some scientists, such as Noel Snyder, believe this process of making ceremonial clothing helped contribute to the condor’s decline.^[68] If so, this would be the only species that was endangered by the California natives.^[68]

References

1. California Condor Population Size and Distribution California Department of Fish and Game, Habitat Conservation Planning Branch
2. Nielsen 2006, p. 27
3. A Greek-English Lexicon (Abridged Edition), Liddell, Henry George and Robert Scott, , , Oxford University Press, 1980, ISBN 0-19-910207-4
4.
5. 'Sibley, Charles G.' and Burt L. Monroe. 1990. ''Distribution and Taxonomy of the Birds of the World''. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04969-2. Accessed 2007-04-11.
6. 'Sibley, Charles G.', and Jon E. Ahlquist. 1991. ''Phylogeny and Classification of Birds: A Study in Molecular Evolution''. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04085-7. Accessed 2007-04-11.
7. 'Ericson', Per G. P.; Anderson, Cajsa L.; Britton, Tom; Elżanowski, Andrzej; Johansson, Ulf S.; Kallersjö, Mari; Ohlson, Jan I.; Parsons, Thomas J.; Zuccon, Dario & Mayr, Gerald (2006): Diversification of Neoaves: integration of molecular sequence data and fossils. ''Biology Letters'', in press. PDF preprint Electronic Supplementary Material
8. The Birds of North America Online: California Condor Cornell Lab of Ornithology
9. The Birds of North America Online: California Condor Cornell Lab of Ornithology
10. Fisher, Harvey L. (1944): The skulls of the Cathartid vultures. ''Condor'' '46'(6): 272-296. PDF fulltext
11. Howard, Hildegarde (1947): A preliminary survey of trends in avian evolution from Pleistocene to recent time. ''Condor'' '49'(1): 10-13. PDF fulltext
12. Howard, Hildegarde (1962): Bird Remains from a Prehistoric Cave Deposit in Grant County, New Mexico. ''Condor'' '64'(3): 241-242.
13. All About Birds: California Condor Cornell Lab of Ornithology
14. BirdLife International (2007) Species factsheet: Gymnogyps californianus. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 17/8/2007
15. California Condors Cool Facts Ventana Wildlife Society
16. All About Birds: California Condor Cornell Lab of Ornithology
17. BirdLife International (2006). Gymnogyps californianus. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. Retrieved on 4 September 2006. Database entry includes justification for why this species is critically endangered.
18. Nielson 2006, p. 1
19. 'Cracraft', J., F. K. Barker, M. Braun, J. Harshman, G. J. Dyke, J. Feinstein, S. Stanley, A. Cibois, P. Schikler, P. Beresford, J. García-Moreno, M. D. Sorenson, T. Yuri, and D. P. Mindell. 2004. Phylogenetic relationships among modern birds (Neornithes): toward an avian tree of life. Pp. 468-489 in ''Assembling the tree of life'' (J. Cracraft and M. J. Donoghue, eds.). Oxford University Press, New York. Accessed 2007-04-10.
20. 'Gibb', G. C., O. Kardailsky, R. T. Kimball, E. L. Braun, and D. Penny. 2007. Mitochondrial genomes and avian phylogeny: complex characters and resolvability without explosive radiations. ''Molecular Biology Evolution'' '24': 269–­280. HTML abstract accessed 2007-04-10.
21. BirdLife International (2006). Gymnogyps californianus. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. Retrieved on 4 September 2006. Database entry includes justification for why this species is critically endangered.
22. BirdLife International (2006). Gymnogyps californianus. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. Retrieved on 4 September 2006. Database entry includes justification for why this species is critically endangered.
23. California condor, (Gymnogyps californianus) US Fish and Wildlife Service
24. Nielsen 2006, p. 79
25. San Diego Zoo's Animal Bytes: California Condor San Diego Zoo
26. California Condors Cool Facts Ventana Wildlife Society
27. California condor, (Gymnogyps californianus) US Fish and Wildlife Service
28. California Condors Cool Facts Ventana Wildlife Society
29. California Condor Behavior US Fish and Wildlife Service
30. California Condor Life History Ventana Wildlife Society
31. Nielsen 2006, p. 58
32. All About Birds: California Condor Cornell Lab of Ornithology
33. California Condor Life History Ventana Wildlife Society
34. Nielsen 2006, p. 30
35. California condor, (Gymnogyps californianus) US Fish and Wildlife Service
36. California Condor Behavior US Fish and Wildlife Service
37. Nielson 2006, p. 186
38. California Condors Cool Facts Ventana Wildlife Society
39. All About Birds: California Condor Cornell Lab of Ornithology
40. Miller, Loye (1960): Condor Remains from Rampart Cave, Arizona. ''Condor'' '62'(1): 70 PDF fulltext
41. Miller, Loye (1931): The California Condor in Nevada. ''Condor'' '33'(1): 32. PDF fulltext
42. Wetmore, Alexander (1931): The California Condor in New Mexico. ''Condor'' '33'(2): 76-77. PDF fulltext
43. Wetmore, Alexander (1932): Additional Records of Birds from Cavern Deposits in New Mexico. ''Condor'' '34'(3): 141-142. PDF fulltext
44. Wetmore, Alexander & Friedmann, Herbert (1938): The California Condor in Texas. ''Condor'' '35'(1): 37-38 PDF fulltext
45. Nielsen 2006, p. 83
46. Kiff, L. F.; Peakall, D. B. & Wilbur, S. R. (1979): Recent Changes in California Condor Eggshells. ''Condor'' '81'(2): 166-172. PDF fulltext
47. Nielsen 2006, p. 88
48. Condors Sheppard Software
49. Nielson 2006, p. 13
50. Nielsen 2006, p. 24
51. California condor, (Gymnogyps californianus) US Fish and Wildlife Service
52. BirdLife International (2006). Gymnogyps californianus. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. Retrieved on 4 September 2006. Database entry includes justification for why this species is critically endangered.
53. California Condors Timeline Los Angeles Zoo
54. Thacker, Paul D. (2006): Condors are shot full of lead. ''Environmental Science & Technology'' '40'(19): 5826. HTML fulltext
55. Lead bullet ban to aid Condor recovery BirdLife International
56. Condors Sheppard Software
57. Fresh Hope For Condors Sky News
58. California Condor lays egg in Mexico Thomas Watkins
59. California Condor Population Size and Distribution California Department of Fish and Game, Habitat Conservation Planning Branch
60. Nielson 2006, p. 7
61. Frequently Asked Questions US Fish and Wildlife Service
62. Nielson 2006, p. 39
63. Nielsen 2006, p. 37
64. Nielsen 2006, p. 38
65. Nielsen 2006, p. 40
66. Nielsen 2006, p. 40
67. Nielsen 2006, p. 36
68. Nielsen 2006, p. 41
69. Nielsen 2006, p. 41
70. Nielsen 2006, p. 41

Cited texts

★ Database entry includes justification for why this species is critically endangered.

★ 'Lesson', René-Primevère (1842): [Description of genus ''Gymnogyps'']. ''L'Echo du monde savant'' ser. 2 '6'(44): col. 1037.

★ 'Nielsen', John. ''Condor: To the Brink and Back- The Life and Times of One Giant Bird''. New York: Harper Perennial, 2006.

External links

★ BirdLife Species Factsheet

★ Yahoo Groups California Condor Club

★ 7" x 4.6" 71.8 KB Condor JPEG provided by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

★ Ventana Wildlife Society Retrieved 2006-OCT-7

★ Peregrine Fund Retrieved 2006-OCT-7

★ Video showing the California Condor

★ California Condor: Gymnogyps Californianus