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'Canada–United States relations' covers more than two centuries, marked by a shared British colonial heritage, conflict during the early years of the U.S., and the eventual development of one of the most successful international relationships in the modern world. The most serious breach in the relationship was the War of 1812, which saw multiple American invasion attempts on then British North America and the partial burning of the Upper Canadian capital, York, Upper Canada. Canadian Militia, led by British forces, later retaliated, eventually burning down the White House and forcing the invading Americans off Canadian soil. Friendship was solidified in the 20th century with the shared experience of the world wars and a close alliance during the Cold War.
Canada and the United States are currently the world's largest trading partners, share the world's longest border, and have significant interoperability within the defence sphere. Modern difficulties have included repeated trade disputes (despite a continental trade agreement), environmental concerns, and debates over immigration and the movement of people across the shared border. While the foreign policies of the neighbours have been largely aligned for much of the post-war era, significant disputes have arisen, including over the Vietnam War, the status of Cuba, the Iraq War and the War on Terror.

Contents

History

Defence and international conflict

War in Afghanistan

2003 Invasion of Iraq

Trade

Arctic disputes

Environmental issues

Illicit drugs

Arar affair

Territorial disputes

The current state of relations

Quotes

Notes

See also

Further reading

External links

History

At the outset of the American Revolution, the American revolutionaries hoped the French Canadians in Quebec and the Yankees in Nova Scotia would join their rebellion and they were pre-approved for joining the United States in the Articles of Confederation. When Canada was invaded during the American Revolutionary War, most Canadians remained neutral, while some joined the invaders. The American effort was a fiasco and Britain tightened its grip on its northern possessions. In peace negotiations, Benjamin Franklin unsuccessfully attempted to convince British diplomats to cede Canada to the United States. The continued presence of the British Empire in Canada after the war helped to sour relations in the succeeding years, particularly since a great number of Loyalist refugees from the American colonies resettled in Canada during and after the war. Thomas Jefferson in particular saw the nearby British presence as a threat to republicanism in the United States.
The Treaty of Paris (1783) which ended the war called for the British to vacate all their forts south of the Great Lakes border. The British refused to do so, citing failure of the United States to provide financial restitution for Loyalists who had lost property in the war. The Jay Treaty in 1795 with Great Britain resolved that lingering issue and the British departed the forts. Tensions mounted again after 1805, erupting into the War of 1812, when the Americans declared war on Britain. The Americans were angered by British harassment of U.S. ships on the high seas and seizure ("impressment") of 6,000 American sailors, as well as severe restrictions against neutral American trade with France. The Americans were outgunned by more than 10-1 by the Royal Navy, and so a land invasion of Canada was proposed as the only feasible means of attacking the British Empire. Americans on the western frontier also hoped an invasion would bring an end to what they saw as British support of American Indian resistance to the westward expansion of the United States, typified by Tecumseh's coalition of tribes. The early strategy was to temporarily seize Canada as a means of forcing concessions from the British. As in 1775 many Americans hoped the Canadians would welcome the chance to overthrow their British rulers. However, the American invasion attempts were repeatedly repulsed, and the war resulted in a victory for the Canadians.
Canada became a self-governing dominion in 1867 while retaining ties to the British crown. Strained relations with the United States continued, however, due to a series of armed incursions named the Fenian raids by Irish-American Civil War veterans across the border from 1866 to 1871 in an attempt to overthrow British interests in North America. While officially the American government did not openly endorse the raids, and did eventually move to disarm the Fenians, the raids created lasting anger in Canada. Many Canadians believed that President Andrew Johnson initially supported the raids, and that the American government turned a blind eye to these armed incursions for far too long.

A boundary dispute in the Oregon Country (''Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!'') was the most serious disturbance, but was peacefully resolved. In the 1930s, the United States studied plans to invade Canada in War Plan Red, albeit as an academic exercise. Canadian defence was organized against an American invasion until the onset of World War II.
Following co-operation in the two World Wars, Canada and the United States lost much of their previous animosity. As Britain's influence as a global superpower declined, Canada and the United States became extremely close partners. Canada was a close ally of the United States during the Cold War.
In World War II the U.S. built large military bases in Newfoundland (then a British colony), and the business community there sought closer ties with the U.S. as expressed by the Economic Union Party. Ottawa took notice and wanted Newfoundland to join Canada, which it did after hotly contested referendums. There was little demand in the U.S. for the acquisition of Newfoundland, so the U.S. did not protest the British decision not to allow an American option on the Newfoundland referendum.
The Canadian military, like forces of many other Western countries, fought along side the U.S. in most major conflicts with UN-involvement since World War II, including the Korean War, the Gulf War, the Kosovo War, and most recently, the war in Afghanistan. The main exceptions to this were the Canadian government's opposition to the Vietnam War and the Iraq War, which caused some brief diplomatic tensions. Despite these issues, military relations have remained close.

Defence and international conflict

U.S. defence arrangements with Canada are more extensive than with any other country. The Permanent Joint Board of Defense, established in 1940, provides policy-level consultation on bilateral defence matters. The United States and Canada share North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) mutual security commitments. In addition, U.S. and Canadian military forces have cooperated since 1958 on continental air defence within the framework of the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD).
There is also an active military exchange program between the two countries under which Canadian Forces personnel have been involved in Iraq. Moreover, interoperability with the American armed forces has been a guiding principle of Canadian military force structuring and doctrine since the end of the Cold War. Canadian navy frigates, for instance, integrate seamlessly into U.S. carrier battle groups.

War in Afghanistan

Main articles: Canada's role in the invasion of Afghanistan

Canada's JTF2 unit joined American special forces in Afghanistan shortly after the Al-Qaeda attacks on September 11, 2001. Canadian forces joined the multinational coalition in Operation Anaconda in January 2002. On April 18, 2002, an American pilot attacked Canadian forces involved in a training exercise, killing four and wounding eight Canadians. A joint US-Canadian inquiry determined the cause of the incident to be pilot error, in which the pilot interpreted ground fire as an attack; the pilot ignored orders that he felt were "second-guessing" his field tactical decision.^[1][2] Canadian forces assumed a six-month command rotation of the International Security Assistance Force in 2003; in 2005, Canadians assumed operational command of the multi-national Brigade in Kandahar, with 2,300 troops, and supervises the Provincial Reconstruction Team in Kandahar, where Al-Qaeda forces are most active. Canada has also deployed naval forces in the Persian Gulf since 1991 in support of the UN Gulf Multinational Interdiction Force.^[3]
The Canadian Embassy in Washington, DC maintains a public relations web site named CanadianAlly.com, which is intended "to give American citizens a better sense of the scope of Canada's role in North American and Global Security and the War on Terror."
The New Democratic Party and some recent Liberal leadership candidates have expressed opposition to Canada's expanded role in the Afghan conflict on the ground that it is inconsistent with Canada's historic role (since the Second World War) of peacekeeping operations.

2003 Invasion of Iraq

According to contemporary polls, the vast majority of Canadians were opposed to the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The Canadian government, under Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, maintained a position with emphasis on UN authority. Many Canadians, and the former Liberal government of Paul Martin (as well as many Americans such as Bill Clinton^[4]), made a policy distinction between conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq, unlike the Bush doctrine which links these together in a "Global war on terror".

Trade

'Canada' and the United States have the world's largest trading relationship, with huge quantities of goods and people flowing across the border each year. Since the 1987 Canadian-American Free Trade Agreement there have been no tariffs on most goods passed between the two countries.
With such a massive trading relationship, trade disputes between the two countries are frequent and inevitable. American officials have placed ongoing tariffs on Canadian softwood lumber despite losing various appeals placed by Canada in the NAFTA and WTO panels. The softwood lumber dispute remains a growing issue between the two countries and is degrading the trade relationship on both sides of the border. Other notable disputes include the Canadian Wheat Board, and Canadian cultural "restrictions" on magazines and television (See CRTC, CBC and National Film Board of Canada). Canadians have criticized about such things as the ban on beef since a case of Mad Cow disease was discovered in 2003 with cows from United States of America (and a few subsequent cases) and the high American agricultural subsidies. Concerns in Canada also run high over aspects of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) such as Chapter 11, which many worry makes it difficult for the Canadian government to protect Canada's environment.
One ongoing and complex trade issue involves the importation of cheaper prescription drugs from Canada to the United States. Due to the Canadian government's price controls as part of their state-run medical system, prices for prescription drugs can be a fraction of the price paid by consumers in the unregulated U.S. market. While laws in the United States have been passed at the national level against such sales, specific state and local governments have passed their own legislation to allow the trade to continue. American drug companies--often supporters of political campaigns--have obviously come out against the practice.
According to a 2003 study commissioned by the Canadian Embassy in the United States, based on 2001 data, Canada-U.S. trade supported 5.2 million U.S. jobs.

U.S. State	U.S. Jobs Supported	Rank
Alabama	72,000	24
Alaska	13,000	48
Arizona	89,000	22
Arkansas	45,000	32
California	626,000	1
Colorado	93,000	21
Connecticut	67,000	27
Delaware	16,000	46
Florida	289,000	4
Georgia (U.S. state)	152,000	10
Hawaii	26,000	39
Idaho	23,000	43
Illinois	237,000	5
Indiana	112,000	14
Iowa	55,000	30
Kansas	51,000	31
Kentucky	69,000	26
Louisiana	73,000	23
Maine	24,000	41
Maryland	101,000	20
Massachusetts	134,000	13
Michigan	174,000	8
Minnesota	103,000	19
Mississippi	43,000	34
Missouri	108,000	16
Montana	16,000	45
Nebraska	36,000	36
Nevada	43,000	35
New Hampshire	24,000	42
New Jersey	153,000	9
New Mexico	30,000	37
New York	348,000	3
North Carolina	151,000	11
North Dakota	13,000	49
Ohio	212,000	7
Oklahoma	58,000	29
Oregon	63,000	28
Pennsylvania	219,000	6
Rhode Island	19,000	44
South Carolina	69,000	25
South Dakota	15,000	47
Tennessee	108,000	15
Texas	369,000	2
Utah	44,000	33
Vermont	12,000	50
Virginia	141,000	12
Washington	108,000	17
Washington, D.C.	29,000	38
West Virginia	25,000	40
Wisconsin	103,000	18
Wyoming	9,000	51
'Total'	'5,210,000 '

http://www.canadianembassy.org/2005map/2005_map_front.pdf http://www.canadianally.com

Arctic disputes

A long-simmering dispute between Canada and the U.S. involves the issue of Canadian sovereignty over the Northwest Passage (the sea passages in the Arctic). Canada’s assertion that the Northwest Passage represents internal (territorial) waters has been challenged by other countries, especially the U.S., which argue that these waters constitute an international strait (international waters). Canadians were incensed when Americans drove the reinforced oil tanker Manhattan through the Northwest Passage in 1969, followed by the icebreaker Polar Sea in 1985, both without asking for Canadian permission. In 1970, the Canadian government enacted the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, which asserts Canadian regulatory control over pollution within a 100-mile zone. In response, the United States in 1970 stated, “We cannot accept the assertion of a Canadian claim that the Arctic waters are internal waters of Canada.... Such acceptance would jeopardize the freedom of navigation essential for United States naval activities worldwide.” A compromise of sorts was reached in 1988, by an agreement on “Arctic Cooperation,” which pledges that voyages of American icebreakers “will be undertaken with the consent of the Government of Canada.” However the agreement did not alter either country’s basic legal position. In January 2006 David Wilkins, the American ambassador to Canada, said his government opposes Stephen Harper's proposed plan to deploy military icebreakers in the Arctic to detect interlopers and assert Canadian sovereignty over those waters.
^[5] In August 2007, former US ambassador to Canada, Paul Cellucci, stated that in 2005, he informed his government that it should reevaluate its assertion that the Northwest Passage is an international sea body, and should belong to Canada. His advice was rejected and in 2007 Bush and Harper took polar opposite positions. ^[6]

Environmental issues

The two countries work closely to resolve transborder environmental issues, an area of increasing importance in the bilateral relationship. A principal instrument of this cooperation is the International Joint Commission (IJC), established as part of the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909 to resolve differences and promote international cooperation on boundary waters. The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1972 is another historic example of joint cooperation in controlling transborder water pollution. However, there have been some disputes. Most recently, the Devil's Lake Outlet, a project instituted by North Dakota, has angered Manitobans who fear that their water may soon become polluted as a result of this project.
The two governments also consult semi-annually on transborder air pollution. Under the Air Quality Agreement of 1991, both countries have made substantial progress in coordinating and implementing their acid rain control programs and signed an annex on ground level ozone in 2000. Despite this transborder air pollution remains an issue, particularly in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence watershed during the summer. The main source of this transborder pollution results from coal fired power stations, most of them located in the Midwest US.
There is also concern over sewage disposal in British Columbia, as current legislation allows the province to dispose of its sewage in the Pacific Ocean.
Currently neither of the countries governments support the Kyoto Protocol, which set out time scheduled curbing of greenhouse gas emissions. Unlike the United States, Canada has ratified the agreement. Yet after ratification, due to internal political conflict within the Canadian government, Canada does not enforce the Kyoto Protocol, and has received criticism from environmental groups and from other governments for its climate change positions.[3]

Illicit drugs

In 2003 the American government became concerned when members of the Canadian government announced plans to decriminalize marijuana. David Murray, an assistant to U.S. Drug Czar John P. Walters, said in a CBC interview that, "We would have to respond. We would be forced to respond." ^[7]. However the election of the Conservative Party in early 2006 has halted the liberalization of marijuana laws for the foreseeable future. The Canadian government currently grows marijuana for medicinal purposes only in former mines.

Arar affair

Main articles: Maher Arar

On September 26, 2002, U.S. officials detained on suspicion of terrorist links a Canadian citizen named Maher Arar who had been travelling through New York as part of a trip home to Canada, from vacation in Tunisia.
Despite travelling on a Canadian passport, Arar was deported to Syria, a country he had not visited since his teenage years. He was imprisoned there for over a year and tortured repeatedly. The decision by U.S. officials to deport him to Syria, his imprisonment and torture there, and the extent of collaboration between U.S. and Canadian officials became a major political issue in Canada at the time.
Canadian officials have since said that Arar was not linked in any way to terrorism, and the Canadian prime minister, Stephen Harper, has issued a formal apology to Arar, but he remains on an American terrorist watchlist.

Territorial disputes

These include maritime boundary disputes:

★ Dixon Entrance

★ Beaufort Sea

★ Strait of Juan de Fuca

★ San Juan Islands

★ Machias Seal Island and North Rock
Territorial land disputes:

★ Aroostook War (Maine boundary)

★ Alaska Boundary Dispute
and disputes over the international status of the:

★ Northwest Passage

★ Inside Passage

The current state of relations

Shortly after being congratulated by U.S. President George W. Bush for his victory in February of 2006, Prime Minister of Canada, Stephen Harper rebuked U.S. Ambassador to Canada David Wilkins for criticizing the Conservatives' plans to assert Canada's sovereignty over the Arctic Ocean waters with armed forces. Harper's first meeting with the U.S. President occurred at the end of March, 2006; and while little was achieved in the way of solid agreements, the trip was described in the media as signalling a trend of closer relations between the two nations.

Quotes

★ U.S. President John F. Kennedy: "Geography has made us neighbors. History has made us friends. Economics has made us partners. And necessity has made us allies. Those whom nature hath so joined together, let no man put asunder."^[8]

★ Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau described relations as being like "sleeping with an elephant. No matter how friendly and even-tempered is the beast, if I can call it that, one is affected by every twitch and grunt."^[9]

Notes

1. U.S. 'friendly fire' pilot won't face court martial
2. Pilots blamed for 'friendly fire' deaths
3. CANADIAN NAVY TEAMS UP WITH U.S. CARRIER BATTLE GROUPS
4. Clinton speaks on Afghanistan, and Canada listens
5. Matthew Carnaghan, Allison Goody, "Canadian Arctic Sovereignty" (Library of Parliament: Political and Social Affairs Division, 26 January 2006) at [1]; 2006 news at [2]
6. http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20070817/qp_cellucci_070819/20070819?hub=Politics
7. http://www.cbc.ca/story/canada/national/2003/05/02/us_pot_rxn030502.html
8. John F. Kennedy. ''Address Before the Canadian Parliament in Ottawa''. The American Presidency Project.
9. From a speech by Trudeau to the National Press Club in Washington, DC, on 25 March 1969; authorship of the speech was later attributed to Ivan Head, Trudeau's adviser. (It should be noted, as well, that Trudeau's quote is commonly, although incorrectly, remembered as casting Canada as a mouse; this was in fact the creation of an editorial cartoon that followed Trudeau's speech.)

See also

★ Canadian and American economies compared

★ Canadian and American politics compared

★ Foreign relations of Canada

★ Foreign relations of the United States

★ Etiquette in Canada and the United States

★ Canadian Bacon

Further reading

★ Graeme S. Mount and Edelgard Mahant, ''An Introduction to Canadian-American Relations'' (1984, updated 1989)

★ Graeme S. Mount and Edelgard Mahant, ''Invisible and Inaudible in Washington: American Policies toward Canada during the Cold War'' (1999)

External links

★ Canadian Embassy in Washington, D.C.

★ Embassy of the United States of America in Ottawa, Ontario

★ Canadian Society of New York - formed in 1897 to foster a spirit of good will between Canada and the United States. For 106 years it held an annual gala to honour distinguished Canadians or Americans who devoted their careers to strengthening the ties between the two countries.

★ Canadian Association of New York