العربية
中国
Français
Deutsch
Ελληνική
हिन्दी
Italiano
日本語
Português
Русский
EspañolCANDIDE
'''Candide, ou l'Optimisme''' (1759) is a short French-language satire by the Enlightenment philosopher Voltaire. Williams (1997), p. 1–3 In translation, ''Candide, ou l'Optimisme'' has been published under various English titles including ''Candide: Or, All for the Best'' (1759); ''Candide: Or, The Optimist'' (1762); and ''Candide: Or, Optimism'' (1947). [3] ''Candide'' tells the tale of its naive eponymous protagonist, taught initially to believe in Leibnizian Optimism. The title character's name comes from the French adjective "candide" (/kãdid/) which means "ingenuous".[4] Candide is disillusioned after undergoing a series of extraordinary hardships; Candide travels around the world in a plot similar to that of a more serious picaresque novel or a ''bildungsroman'': ''Candide'' parodies many adventure and romance clichés in this respect. The novella's pace is quick; its mood is light and humorous; and its tone is sarcastic.
''Candide'', Voltaire's ''magnum opus'',Davidson (2005), p. 54 is widely considered to be one of the most significant works of the Western canon, for its biting wit and insightful portrayal of the human condition.[5] It is thus often included on lists of most influential or greatest books. It also has often been mimicked in more modern literary works and adapted for the stage. One such adaptation is Leonard Bernstein's operetta, which first appeared in 1956. ''Candide'' is one of the most popular literary works of all time, and is thus the subject of much literary criticism, some of it quite esoteric. In the allegory, Voltaire pokes fun at religion and theologians, governments and armies and philosophies and philosophers;Davidson (2005), p. 54 ''Candide'' comprehensively, if not systematically, enumerates all the evils of the world to make fun of the philosophical doctrine of Optimism, in addition to satirizing various other subjects. He discusses many evils; but one or two stand out: the 1755 Lisbon earthquake and the Seven Years' War, both of which helped to motivate Voltaire to write ''Candide''.
Publication
History
Writing
It is unknown exactly when Voltaire wrote ''Candide''[6], but scholars estimate that he wrote most of it in late 1758, though he may have begun it as early as 1757.[7] Voltaire probably wrote a portion of it while at his house in Ferney and also while visiting Charles-Théodore, the Elector-Palantine at Schwetzingen, for three weeks in the summer of 1758. There is, despite solid evidence for these assertions, a popular legend that Voltaire wrote ''Candide'' in the span of three days. This statement is probably based on a misreading of the work ''La Vie intime de Voltaire aux Délices et à Ferney'' by Perey and Maugras.[8][9] In fact, the evidence suggests strongly that ''Candide'' was not just rushed or improvised, but worked on for a significant period of time, maybe a whole year. This signifies that the work was intellectually mature and well-thought out, not ad-hoc as is often thought (partly because of the aforementioned myth).[10]
''Candide'' underwent one major revision after being published In 1761, a version of ''Candide'' was published which included a major addition by Voltaire to the 22nd chapter, thought to have been weak by the Duke of Vallière, in addition to many minor tweaks.[11] The title of this edition was, in English, ''Candide, or Optimism. Translated from the German of Dr. Ralph. With the additions found in the Doctor's pocket when he died at Minden, in the Year of Grace 1759.''Bair (1959 The last edition of ''Candide'' which was authorized by Voltaire was the one published in 1775 by Cramer, called ''l'édition encadrée'' because the text was set within a frame.[12]
Publication
The date of publication, too, is uncertain, although it is generally believed that Voltaire had ''Candide'' published in early 1759 simultaneously in five countries. Williams (1997), p. 1–3 More precisely, ''Candide'' was probably published at least by January 15, though probably before this.[13] No less than seventeen versions of ''Candide'' published in 1759 are known today, and there has been great controversy over which is the most original. Williams (1997), p. 1–3
The complicated science of calculating the relative publication dates of all of the published versions is described at length in I.O. Wade's article ''The First Edition of ''Candide'': A Problem of Identification'' which was published in the Princeton University Library Chronicle, volume XX, number 2, in the winter of 1959. As is described in this work, the publication process was extremely secretive owing to the potentially controversial nature of the material; Wade thinks it likely was the "most clandestine work of the century".Wade (1959), p. 63–88 The greatest number of copies of ''Candide'' were published concurrently in Geneva by Cramer, in Amsterdam by Marc-Michel Rey, in London by Jean Nourse (translated into English), and in Paris by Lambert.Wade (1959), p. 63–88
Reception
Though Voltaire did not openly admit to having written the controversial ''Candide'' until 1768, (he signed with a pseudonym: "''Monsieur le docteur Ralph''", or "Doctor Ralph".[14]), his authorship of the work was hardly disputed. Immediately after appearing, the work was denounced by secular and religious authorities alike. [15]
By the end of February 1759, The Great Council of Geneva and the administrators of Paris had banned the work. Williams (1997), p. 1–3 ''Candide'', nevertheless, succeeded in selling 20,000–30,000 copies by the end of the year in over twenty editions, making it a best-seller for the time. The Duke de La Vallière speculated near the end of January 1759, that ''Candide'' might have been the fastest selling book yet.[16]
That year, it was translated once into Italian and thrice into English.[17] In 1762, ''Candide'' was listed in the ''Index Librorum Prohibitorum'', the Catholic church's list of prohibited books. Williams (1997), p. 1–3
Manuscripts
There is currently only one extant manuscript of ''Candide'' that was written before the work's 1759 publication. For almost two hundred years, there was a legend, oft repeated, that there existed an early manuscript of ''Candide'' that had been sent to the Duchess de La Vallière.Wade (1956), p. 3–4 In 1956, Wade, a noted expert on Voltaire and ''Candide'', discovered this manuscript, since named the ''La Vallière Manuscript''. This manuscript is believed to have been sent, chapter by chapter, by Voltaire himself to the Duke and Duchess before the novella's publication in the autumn of 1758. Williams (1997), p. 1–3 The manuscript was sold to the Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal in the late 1700s, where it remained undiscovered for almost 200 years.Rouillard (1962) This manuscript, the most original and authentic of all surviving editions, was likely dictated by Voltaire to a secretary, Wagnière.[18] Copies were also sent to Louis XV and Madame de Pompadour.[19] This discovery precipitated Wade's writing of ''Voltaire and Candide: A Study in the Fusion of History, Art and Philosophy'', which was published in 1959.Oake (1961)
In addition to this manuscript, there is believed to have been another, one copied by Wagnière for the Elector Charles-Théodore who hosted Voltaire during the summer of 1758. The existence of this copy was first supposed by Norman L. Torrey in 1929.[20]Wade (1956), p. 3–4
Illustrations
This image is a 1787 illustration of the scene where Candide and Cacambo meet the maimed slave of the sugar mill near Surinam. The drawing is by Moreau; the engraving by Baquoy.
This image is an 1803 illustration of the scene where Candide shoots the two monkeys. The drawing is by Moreau; the engraving by Ghendt.
Voltaire strongly opposed the inclusion of illustrations in his works, as stated in a letter from him to Charles Joseph Panckoucke in 1778; he wrote, "these baubles have never been allowed in the works of Cicero, Virgil and Horace." Bellhouse (2006), p. 756 Neveretheless, two sets of illustrations for ''Candide'' were done in 1787 by French artist Jean-Michel Moreau le Jeune. The first version was done, at Moreau's own expense, for Kehl's publication of that year, ''Oeuvres Complètes de Voltaire''. Bellhouse (2006), p. 756 Four images were drawn by Moreau for this edition; these were engraved by Pierre-Charles Baquoy. Bellhouse (2006), p. 757 The second version, of 1803, consisted of seven drawings by Moreau; these were transposed by multiple engravers. This collection was included in the 1819 publication by Renouard. Bellhouse (2006), p. 769
Plot and structure
''Candide'' is organized into thirty chapters. As noted by Ervin Beck and Elizabeth Cooney Leister, the novella may be divided into three equal parts, each comprising ten chapters and defined by their settings: I–X take place in Europe; XI–XX are in America; and XXI–XXX are in Europe and the Ottoman Empire. Beck (1999), p. 203[21] Some take this view; others see the book divided into two parts separated by the hiatus in Eldorado: the former part constitutes the rising action, while the latter is the resolution. This view is strengthened by the strong theme of travel and of Candide's quest, reminiscent of adventure and picaresque novels. This theme becomes strongest after he leaves Eldorado and seeks out his love directly (having found her alive). Earlier, Candide wanders rather aimlessly. Williams (1997), p. 26&ndashq27
Character list
The characters of ''Candide'' have been described as unrealistic, two-dimensional, mechanized and even marionette-like.Wade (1959b), p. 303–305 The following list includes the protagonist (Candide) and those characters who travel with him for a significant portion of the tale; there are a number of minor characters that are not here mentioned.
★ 'Candide' is the protagonist of ''Candide'', a bastard child of "the most unaffected simplicity", whose face is "the index of his mind". Aldridge (1975), p. 251–254
★ 'Cunégonde', the Baron's daughter, is also Candide's cousin and love interest. She is thought to be modeled after both of Voltaire's mistresses: his niece Marie Louise Mignot Denis and the scientist Émilie du Châtelet. She may be associated symbolically with Eve.[22]
★ 'Dr. Pangloss' tutors Candide and Cunégonde as a professor of métaphysico-théologo-cosmolonigologie. His character may have been based on Louisa Dorothea von Meiningen, duchess of Saxe-Gotha, a Leibnizian with whom Voltaire had much correspondence.[23]The name "Pangloss" is derived from the Greek words ''pan'' and ''gloss'', together meaning "all words". Williams (1997), p. 25
★ 'Cacambo' is Candide's very practical valet of a diverse ethnic background. His name is derived from the Spanish word ''caca'' which means feces. Beck (1999), p. 203-4.
★ 'Martin' is Candide's traveling companion, and a Manichaean. Some critics believe that Martin is treated sympathetically, signifying that the ideal philosophy of ''Candide'' is pessimistic. Others disagree, citing Voltaire's negative description of Martin's principles and the conclusion of the work in which Martin becomes passive.Bottiglia (1951), p. 726
★ 'Paquette' is a maid for Cunégonde's family who gives syphilis to Pangloss and prostitutes herself in Venice.Ayer (1986), p. 143–145 Her name is similar to the French word for "daisy". Williams (1997), p. 25
★ 'Old Woman' (Fr. ''la vieille'') is Cunégonde's servant. She is the daughter of a fictional pope Urban X and a princess of Palestrina. She has had one buttock cut off by starving soldiers under siege.Ayer (1986), p. 143–145
★ 'Jacques the Anabaptist', Candide's Dutch and Anabaptist benefactor for chapters III–V. Jacques, whose name is usually translated "Jacob" or "James", is usually considered ''the'' selfless person of the novel. He drowns after saving another man. Scherr (2001), p. 74
★ 'Cunégonde's brother', never named, is a Jesuit and a Colonel. He is believed to have been based partly on Frederick the Great with whom Voltaire corresponded.[24]
Summary
The tale begins in the castle of the Baron Thunder-ten-tronckh in Westphalia, home to the Baron's naive bastard nephew Candide and the Baron's daughter, Lady Cunégonde. The philosopher Dr. Pangloss, tutor to Candide and Cunégonde, teaches them that they live in the "best of all possible worlds" ("''ce meilleur des mondes possibles''") and that "all is for the best" ("''tout est au mieux''"). One day, Candide is evicted from the castle after kissing Cunégonde. Candide, forced to travel extensively, endures a number of extremely unfortunate hardships, and witnesses worse, yet holds on to his Optimism for a comically long period of time.
Candide serves in the army, is flogged, is almost burned in an auto-da-fé, and is nearly killed in the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. In Candide's absence, the baron's castle is ransacked by Bulgars, Cunégonde is raped and stabbed, and her family killed. Candide is temporarily reunited with Cunégonde, who has miraculously survived, but immediately thereafter Candide is forced to kill a Jew and an Inquisitor who shared her as slave masters.Ayer (1986), p. 143–145
Cunégonde, her servant, and Candide steal away to Buenos Aires and the New World. Their voyage is, however, tracked. Candide's manservant, Cacambo, appears and leads his master to Paraguay without his love, Cunégonde. At a border post on the way, Cacambo and Candide speak to the commandant, who turns out to be Cunégonde's brother. This brother explains how he was saved by Jesuits and came to be there.Ayer (1986), p. 143–145
When Candide proclaims that he intends to marry Cunégonde, the brother grows angry and strikes Candide with the flat of his sword. Candide stabs his attacker, steals his robe, and flees with Cacambo, greatly distressed. The two wander into Eldorado, a geographically isolated utopia where the streets are covered with precious stones, there are no priests, and all of the king's jokes are funny.[25] They stay for a month before parting with one hundred red sheep laden with riches. All but two of the sheep perish soon after this departure. In Surinam, the duo split up: Cacambo is to go to Buenos Aires to rescue Lady Cunégonde and then rendezvous with Candide in Venice.
In Bordeaux, on the way to Italy, Candide meets Martin, a Manichean from Amsterdam who accompanies him on the rest of his journey. Candide and Martin meet up with Cacambo in Venice after a series of adventures in France, where Candide is swindled multiple times, and in England, where Candide and Cacambo witness the execution of an admiral, designed by his superiors "to encourage the others". Cacambo explains that Cunégonde is in Constantinople, so thither they travel. En route, Cacambo relates Cunégonde's status: she is washing dishes for a Prince of Transylvania, and she has become ugly. On the way to rescue her, Candide finds Pangloss and Lady Cunégonde's brother alive, now baron, and rowing the galley.Ayer (1986), p. 143–145
The Baron and Pangloss relate their survival stories, which despite their horrors have not shaken Pangloss's Optimism. According to the philosopher, "I still hold to my original opinions, because, after all, I'm a philosopher, and it wouldn't be proper for me to recant, since Leibniz cannot be wrong, and since preestablished harmony is the most beautiful thing in the world, along with the plenum and subtle matter." Voltaire (1959), p. 107–108 The travelers arrive in Transylvania where they rejoin Cunégonde and the old woman. Candide buys their freedom and marries Cunégonde to spite her brother. Paquette and Brother Giroflée, too, are reconciled with Candide on his farm, the only property left to him.
Returning to their farm, Candide, Pangloss and Martin meet a Turk who teaches a philosophy that is non-existent. He and his four children work a small farm to keep "free of three great evils: boredom, vice and poverty". Struck by this statement, Candide concludes that all he knows is that "we must cultivate our garden." Candide, Pangloss, Martin, Cunégonde, Paquette, the old woman and Brother Giroflée all set to work (on this "commendable plan"), each to one specific task. Candide ignores Pangloss's insistence that all turned out for the best by necessity, and is resolved only that "it is necessary to cultivate our garden". Voltaire (1959), p. 113
Style
As Voltaire himself described it, his purpose in composing ''Candide'' was to "bring amusement to a small number of men of wit". Aldridge (1975), p. 251–254 Voltaire achieves this by aim by combining his sharp wit with a fun parody of the classic adventure/romance plot. Candide on his foolish adventure is confronted with horrible events described in painstaking detail so often it is humourous. Voltaire's matter-of-fact narrative treats topics such as mass death, "as coolly as a weather report", as described by Frances K. Barasch. The fast-paced and impossible plot in which characters to come back from the dead and otherwise defy traditional logic, allowed for many compounded tragedies to befall the same unfortunate characters over and over again in a short span of text.[26] In the end, ''Candide'' is primarily, as described by Ian Davidson, biographer of Voltaire, "short, light, rapid and humorous".Davidson (2005), p. 54 Wade (1959b), p. 133
Satire
The main method of ''Candide''
Primarily, Voltaire depicts the worst of the world and his pathetic hero desperately trying to fit it into his optimistic outlook. Indeed the majority of the work is a treatment of evil. Rarely does Voltaire diverge from this technique; but there is at least one notable example: his description of Eldorado, a fantastic village in which the inhabitants are simply rational, and their society is just and reasonable. This positive method of describing the ideal of Eldorado may be contrasted with the pessimistic attitude of the majority of the book. Aldridge (1975), p. 251–254 Barasch (1985), p. 3
Picaresque
The second part of the satire of ''Candide'' focuses on what William F. Bottiglia calls the "sentimental foibles of the age" and Voltaire's attack on them.[29] Flaws in European culture are highlighted in the style with which ''Candide'' parodies adventure and romance in partial mimicry of the picaresque novel of the preceding centuries. [30] A number of archetypal characters thus have recognizable manifestations in Voltaire's work: Candide is the drifting rogue of low social class; Cunégonde is the object of Candide's sexual interest; Pangloss is the knowledgeable mentor to the main character; Cacambo is the typical valet of the genre. Aldridge (1975), p. 251–254
In that the initially naive protagonist of ''Candide'' at the end of the novel eventually comes to a mature conclusion, however noncommittal it is, the novella may be considered a bildungsroman, or at least a parody of one. Aldridge (1975), p. 251–254
Inspiration and influences
A number of significant historical events and literary works preceding the publication of ''Candide'' have been deemed by analysts as having inspired Voltaire to write it. Not least among them are the Seven Years' War and the 1755 Lisbon Earthquake. Indeed, both of these are alluded to quite often in the text of ''Candide''.Wade (1959b), p. 88 It is thought by Ira Wade that Volaire's primary source for information on the earthquake was the 1755 work ''Relation historique du tremlement de terre survenu à Lisbonne le premier novembre'' by Ange Goudar, which not only described the event but conjectured as to its philosophical meaning.Wade (1959b), p. 93 But however significant the Lisbon earthquake was to Voltaire, it was not the sole impetus for the writing of ''Candide'', nor was any other single historical event.Wade (1959b), p. 88
Another potential source of inspiration may be derived specifically from the stereotypical German personality of the time, which, as described by Alfred Owen Aldridge, biographer of Voltaire, included "extreme credulousness or sentimental simplicity". Aldridge (1975), p. 251–253 Thus are there thought to be significant parallels between ''Candide'' and ''Simplicius Simplicissimus'', the 1669 novel by Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen. Aldridge (1975), p. 251–254
But ''Candide''
Textual allusions
★ The 1757 execution of British admiral John Byng is alluded to in ''Candide''. According to Martin, the character representing Byng is executed only "pour encourager les autres" (to encourage the others). This explanation has since become well-known.Davidson (2005), p. 54
★ When Voltaire wrote, in ''Candide'', that the Academy of Bordeaux offers a prize to the person who best explains the existence of Candide's red sheep, he was alluding to the actual offer that was made by that Academy in 1741 to anyone who could write an explanation for the reason that black people have the skin colour that they do. Aldridge (1975), p. 255
Themes
Optimism
''Candide'' is a work which satirizes various philosophical and religious theories which Voltaire had previously criticized. The most primary of these is Leibnizian Optimism, which Voltaire makes to look absurd in the face of the seemingly endless calamities depicted in the novel.Davidson (2005), p. 54 Fundamental to Voltaire's method of lampooning Leibniz and his philosophy is the character of Pangloss, who plays the respected tutor of Candide and Cunégonde. Pangloss is a self-proclaimed follower of Leibniz and teacher of his doctrine. Ridicule of Pangloss's theories thus ridicules Leibniz himself in turn, and Pangloss's reasoning is silly at best. Even more doggedly than Candide, Pangloss holds to Optimism, despite horrendous fortune, repeating often, "''Tout est pour le mieux dans le meilleur des mondes possibles''" (English: "All is for the best in the best of all possible worlds"). This phrase illustrates the fundamental tenet of Leibnizian Optimism, and the ridicule of one is the ridicule of the other. It is to this optimistic philosophy that Candide adheres for the majority of the story, but from which he eventually breaks.[32]
Notably, ''Candide'' does not ridicule Voltaire's contemporary Alexander Pope, an avowed optimist. Instead, the biting wit of Voltaire is directed primarily at the deceased Leibniz. Indeed, ''Candide'' does not discuss Pope's optimistic principle that "all is right", but Leibniz's that states this is the "best of all possible worlds". However subtle the difference between the two, ''Candide'' is unambiguous as to which is its subject. It is conjectured that Voltaire actually meant to spare Pope this ridicule, for Voltaire respected Pope. Thus did Voltaire write the ''Poem'' for Pope and ''Candide'' for Leibniz, the former of which comprises a more serious philosophical argument, where the latter is less of one. Aldridge (1975), p. 251–254
Evil
As part of his discussion of Optimism in ''Candide'', Voltaire exemplifies many different types of evil in the world. Many critics purport that Voltaire's treatment of evil, specifically the theological problem of its existence, is the main focus of the work.[33] Heavily referenced in the text are: the Lisbon earthquake, disease and the sinking of ships in storms. Of course, ships are also sunk by Man. Indeed, war, thievery, and murder, man-made evils, are treated as extensively in ''Candide'' as are environmental ones. As William Bottiglia describes it, Voltaire is "comprehensive" in his enumeration of the world's evils.[34]
Lisbon earthquake
It is worth comparing ''Candide'' to the work of Voltaire that is closest to it in subject and time, yet so very distinct from it in style, ''Poem on the Lisbon Disaster'' (''Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne''). Both works specifically attack the philosophical doctrine of Optimism, and use the evidence of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake against it. This massive earthquake, that occurred on All Saints' Day, had a strong influence on theologians of the day, and on Voltaire, who was thoroughly disillusioned by it, describing it in 1755 as one of the horrible disasters "in the best of possible worlds"Wade (1959b), p. 93.[35]
Gardens
Critics have identified symbolic gardens in Voltaire's ''Candide''. The first of these is the castle of the Baron, from which Candide and Cunégonde are evicted much in the same fashion as Adam and Eve are in the book of ''Genesis''. Cyclically, the main characters of ''Candide'' conclude the novel in a garden of their own making, one which might represent Celestial paradise. The third most prominent "garden" is Eldorado, which may be symbolically a false Eden.[36]
Other intermidiary gardens may be seen in the Jesuit place; the garden of Pococurante; Cacambo's garden; and the Turk's garden. These gardens share biblical references and are each symbolically significant. It has also been proposed that the gardens refer to the Encyclopédie and Candide's conclusion to cultivate his garden symbolizes Voltaire's great support for the endeavour.Bottiglia (1951), p. 727
Conclusion
The conclusion of the novella, in which Candide finally dismisses his tutor's Optimism leaves readers wondering what philosophy is to be believed in its stead.
This matter, perhaps above all others of the work, has been written about most voluminously.[37] The conclusion, which has the protagonist and his fellow travelers finally settle down under the mantra, "we must cultivate our garden", is enigmatic, probably intentionally.
One of the primary debates concerns the degree to which Voltaire was advocating a pessimistic philosophy, by which Candide and his companions give up hope for a better world, as compared to a melioristic philosophy which resigns the travelers to commit themselves to improving the world through metaphorical gardening. This is debate on whether or not Voltaire was prescribing passive retreat from society, or active, industrious contribution to it.[38]
Of course, there is not one meaning to ''Candide'', but many meanings on many different levels. For instance, there is the literal sense referring to the necessary occupation of Candide and his companion with feeding themselves. There was also meaning for the author personally: Voltaire himself was a gardener at his estates in Les Délices and Ferney.[39] Scherr (1993)
Voltaire develops no formal, systematic philosophy for the characters to adopt; but many philosophical and literary interpretations of the plot exist.Bottiglia (1951), p. 723–724 Yet he does refute Optimism continuously, albeit artistically, theatrically and informally. The conclusion of the novel may be thought of not as a philosophical alternative to Optimism, but as a prescribed practical outlook. Furthermore, some see in Candide's final resolve that of Voltaire and a strong connection between the development of the character and the author.Bottiglia (1951), p. 719–720
Some, though, disagree with this assertion, arguing instead that tending one's garden is not advocated at all, and that Candide's determination is not Voltaire's. Indeed, some wonder whether ''Candide'' may be considered a bildungsroman. [40]
Inside/outside controversy
Roy Wolper argues in a revolutionary 1969 paper that ''Candide'' does not necessarily speak for its author—that the work should be viewed as a narrative independent of Voltaire's history and that its message is entirely (or mostly) inside it. This point of view, defended by Theodore E. D. Braun (1982), specifically rejects attempts to find Voltaire's "voice" in the many characters of ''Candide'' and his other works. Indeed, writers have seen Voltaire as speaking through Candide, Martin, the Turk. Wolper argues that ''Candide'' should be read with a minimum of speculation as to its meaning in Voltaire's personal life. This article of 1969 has ushered in a new era of Voltaire studies in which many scholars look at the novel differently.[41][42]
Critics such as Lester Crocker, Henry Stavan, and Vivienne Mylne see too many similarities between the point of view of ''Candide'' and that of Voltaire in his own life to accept Wolper's idea. For instance, some believe that the isolationist philosophy of the Old Turk closely mirrors that of Voltaire. Others see a strong parallel between the gardening activities of the protagonist at the conclusion of ''Candide'' and the habits of the author.Braun, Sturzer & Meyer (1988), p. 569–571 Martine Darmon Meyer argues that insiders are failing to see the satirical work in context, and that denying that ''Candide'' is primarily a mockery of Optimism (a matter of historical context) is a "very basic betrayal of the text". Braun, Sturzer & Meyer (1988), p. 574[43]
Legacy
Aside from being a very successful traditional satire, ''Candide'' has had significant influence on modern writers of black humor such as Céline, Heller, Barth, Pynchon, Vonnegut and Southern. Its parody and picaresque methods have become favourites of black humorists.[44]
''Candide'' is not only the most widely read of Voltaire's many worksAyer (1986), p. 139; but it is one of the most popular books in all of Western literature. It certainly is considered one of the greatest achievements of the Western body of literary works Aldridge (1975), p. 260. There is general consensus among experts that ''Candide'' should be considered a masterpiece for its artistic and literary excellence.
This should be qualified: ''Candide'' is not necessarily considered a true "classic''. According to Bottiglia, ''The physical size of ''Candide'', as well as Voltaire's attitude toward his fiction, precludes the achievement of artistic dimension through plenitude, autonomous '3D' vitality, emotional resonance, or poetic exaltation. ''Candide'', then, cannot in quantiy of quality, measure up to the supreme classics.'' Bottiglia instead calls it a miniature one. Others are more forgiving towards its size.[45]
For having been the only work of Voltaire's which has truly stood the test of time, ''Candide'' is listed in ''The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages''[1]; it's been named as one of the ''1001 Books You Must Read Before You Die'', and of the ''100 Most Influential Books Ever Written''; and it is included in the collection ''Great Books of the Western World''.[2]
Adaptations and derivative works
''Seconde partie (Part two)''
In 1760, one year after Voltaire published ''Candide'', a sequel to his novella was published with the name ''Candide, ou l'optimisme, seconde partie''.[46] This was attributed both to Thorel de Campigneulles, "a now largely unknown writer of third-rate moralising novels;" and Henri Joseph Du Laurens, who is suspected of having habitually plagiarised Voltaire.[47] The story continues in this sequel with Candide having new adventures in the Ottoman Empire, Persia and Denmark. The work has potential use in studies of the popular and literary receptions of ''Candide''. Astbury (2005), p. 503
Bernstein's operetta
Leonard Bernstein, American composer and conductor, wrote the music to an operetta based on Voltaire's ''Candide''.[48]''Candide'' was originally conceived by Lillian Hellman as a play with incidental music. Bernstein, however, was so excited about this idea that he convinced Hellman to do it as a "comic operetta"; she did the original book for the operetta. Many lyricists worked on the show, including James Agee, then Dorothy Parker, John Latouche, Richard Wilbur, Leonard and Felicia Bernstein, and Hellman. Hershy Kay orchestrated all the pieces but the overture, which Bernstein did himself.[49]
''Candide'' the operetta first opened on Broadway as a musical on December 1, 1956. The premiere production was directed by Tyrone Guthrie and conducted by Samuel Krachmalnick.[49] While this production was a box office flop, the music was highly praised, and an original cast album was made. This album gradually became a cult hit. But Hellman's libretto, written partly as a reaction to her being blacklisted, was criticized in a ''The New York Times'' review as being too serious an adaptation of Voltaire's original novel, which was much more sardonic and humorously ridiculous. [51] But ''Candide'' would eventually triumph seventeen years later, with a new libretto by Hugh Wheeler which was much more faithful to both the spirit and the letter of Voltaire.
Sciascia's ''Candido''
''Candido ovvero un sogno fatto in Sicilia'' or simply ''Candido'' is a work by Leonardo Sciascia which was based on Voltaire's ''Candide'' by the author's own admission. The actual influence of ''Candide'' on ''Candido'' is, however, a hotly debated topic: a number of theories on the matter have been proposed. For one, ''Candido'' is ''Candide'' with a happy ending; for another, Voltaire provided Sciascia with only a starting point from which to work. Morrison (2002), p. 59 ''Candido'' was published in 1977 in Einaudi, Torino.
Gürsel's ''Le voyage de Candide à Istanbul''
Nedim Gürsel wrote his 2001 novel ''Le voyage de Candide à Istanbul'' about a minor passage in ''Candide'' where its protagonist meets in passing Ahmed III, the deposed Turkish sultan. This chance meeting on a ship from Venice to Istanbul is the setting of Gürsel's book. Hitchins (2002), p. 160
Others
★ David Allan Cates did a modern take in ''X Out of Wonderland'', 2005.
★ ''Fanfluche'' (1892) by Quatrelles.[52]
★ ''Candide'' was made into a number of minor films and theatrical adaptations throughout the 20th century. For a list of these, see page 300 of ''Voltaire: Candide ou L'Optimisme et autres contes'' (1989) with preface and commentaries by Pierre Malandain.[53]
Footnotes
1. Klee, Paul. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved June 6, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9045729
2. Davidson (2005), p. 53
3. Critical Survey of Short Fiction (2001)
4. Oxford Color (2004), p. 42
5. Leister (1985), p. 120
6. Wade (1959), p. 65
7. Torrey (1929), p. 446
8. Wade (1956), p. 3–4
9. Havens (1932), p. 225
10. Wade (1959b), p. 145, 156
11. Wade (1957), p. 96
12. Williams (1997), References
13. Wade (1959b), p. 182
14. Wade (1959b), p. xiii
15. Ayer (1986), p. 139
16. Mason (1992), p. 14
17. Davidson (2005), p. 52–53
18. Wade (1957), p. 94
19. Davidson (2005), p. 52-53
20. Torrey (1929), p. 445–447
21. Leister (1985), p. 32–33
22. Scherr (1993)
23. Dawson (1986), p. 95
24. Walsh (2001)
25. Aldridge (1975), p. 254
26. Starobinski (1976), p. 194
27. Starobinski(1976), p. 194
28. Barasch (1985), p. 3
29. Bottiglia (1968), p. 89–92
30. Bottiglia (1968), p. 89–92
31. Wade (1959b), p. 296
32. Radner (1998), p. 669–
33. ''Readings on Candide'' (2001), p. 121
34. Bottiglia (1951), p. 720
35. Adorno (1970), p. 361
36. ''Readings on Candide'' (2001), p. 92
37. Leister (1985), p. 29
38. Leister (1985), p. 26
39. Davidson (2005), p. 55
40. Wolper (1969)
41. Braun, Sturzer, Meyer (1988)
42. Wolper (1969), p. 265–277
43. Crocker (1971)
44. ''Readings on Candide'' (2001), p. 112–113
45. Bottiglia (1959), p. 247
46. Astbury (2005), p. 503
47. Clark (1993), p. VIII, IX
48. Peyser (1987), p. 247
49. Peyser (1987), p. 248
50. Peyser (1987), p. 248
51. Peyser (1987), p. 249–251
52. Gullette (1934), p. 93–107
53. Malandain (1989)
Bibliography
★ Negative Dialectics, , Theodor W., Adorno, Suhrkamp Verlag, ,
★ Voltaire and the Century of Light, , Alfred Owen, Aldridge, ,
★ Candide, ou l'optimisme, seconde partie (1760) / Jean-François Marmontel: un intellectuel exemplaire au siècle des Lumières, , Kate, Astbury, Modern Language Review,
★ Voltaire, , A.J., Ayer, Random House, , ISBN 0394547985
★ Candide, , , Voltaire, Bantam Dell, , ISBN 0-553-21166-8
★ The Grotesque as a Comic Genre, , Frances K., Barasch, Modern Language Studies,
★ Voltaire's CANDIDE., , Ervin, Beck, Explicator,
★ On the Beginning and Ending of ''Candide'', , C. J., Betts, The Modern Language Review, 1985
★ Teaching Candide— A Debate, , , , The French Review,
★ Candide's Garden, , William F., Bottiglia, PMLA,
★ Voltaire's ''Candide'': Analysis of a Classic, , William F., Bottiglia, Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century,
★ Voltaire; a collection of critical essays, , William F., Bottiglia, Prentice–Hall, Inc., , Library of Congress Number: 68–17823
★ Candide, , , Voltaire, Wordsworth Classics, 1993, ISBN 9781853260636
★ Professor Wolper's Interpretation of Candide, , Lester G., Crocker, Eighteenth-Century Studies,
★ Critical Survey of Short Fiction, , , , Salem Press, Inc., , ISBN 0-89356-006-5
★ Voltaire in Exile, , Ian, Davidson, Grove Press, , ISBN 0802117910
★ In Search of the Real Pangloss: The Correspondence of Voltaire with the Duchess of Saxe-Gotha, , Deidre, Dawson, Yale French Studies,
★ Il Candide nel pensiero di Voltaire, , Giovanni, Gullace, Società editrice napoletana, 1985,
★ Fanfluche - Cousin of Candide, , Cameron C., Gullette, The French Review,
★ The Composition of Voltaire's Candide, , George R., Havens, Modern Language Notes,
★ Some Notes on Candide, , George R., Havens, Modern Language Notes, 1973
★ Travel in Candide: Moving On But Going Nowhere, , Patrick, Henry, Papers on Language & Literature,
★ Time in Candide, , Patrick, Henry, Studies in Short Fiction,
★ Working in Candide's Garden, , Patrick, Henry, Studies in Short Fiction,
★ Contre Barthes, , Patrick, Henry, Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century,
★ Le voyage de Candide à Istanbul, , Keith, Hitchins, World Literature Today,
★ "Cette Boucherie Héroïque": "Candide" as Carnival, , R. J., Howells, The Modern Language Review, 1985
★ The new Candide or what I learned in the theory wars., , David, Kirby, Virginia Quarterly Review,
★ Voltaire's ''Candide'', , Elizabeth Cooney, Leister, Barron's Educational Series, Inc., 1985,
★ Romance Conventions in Voltaire's Candide, , James J., Lynch, South Atlantic Review, 1985
★ Voltaire: Candide ou L'Optimisme et autres contes, Voltaire, , , Pocket, 1989,
★ Voltaire's CANDIDE, , Leonard, Marsh, Explicator,
★ Voltaire's "Contes": An "État Présent", , H. T., Mason, The Modern Language Review,
★ Candide: Optimism Demolished, , Haydn, Mason, Twayne Publishers, 1992,
★ Leonardo Sciascia's ''Candido'' and Voltaire's ''Candide'', , Ian R., Morrison, Modern Language Review,
★ Review of "Voltaire and Candide", , Roger B., Oake, Comparative Literature,
★ Oxford Color French Dictionary Plus, , , , Oxford University Press Inc, , ISBN 0198608985
★ Bernstein, a biography, , Joan, Peyser, Beech Tree Books, ,
★
★ Optimality in biology: Pangloss or Leibniz?, , , , Monist,
★ Review of "Voltaire and Candide: A Study in the Fusion of History, Art and Philosophy", , C. D., Rouillard, Modern Philology,
★ Voltaire's 'Candide': a tale of women's equality, , Arthur, Scherr, The Midwest Quarterly,
★ Voltaire's CANDIDE, , Arthur, Scherr, Explicator,
★ Sur le Style Philosophique de Candide, , Jean, Starobinski, Comparative Literature,
★ The La Vallière MS of Candide, , Ira O., Wade, The French Review,
★ A Manuscript of Voltaire's "Candide", , Ira O., Wade, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society,
★ The First Edition of ''Candide'': A Problem of Identification, , Ira O., Wade, The Princeton University Library Chronicle,
★ Voltaire and ''Candide'': A Study in the Fusion of History, Art, and Philosophy, , Ira O., Wade, Princeton University Press, 1959b, Library of Congress number 59-11085
★ Readings on Candide, , , , Greenhaven Press, 2001,
★ Voltaire, Candide, , David, Williams, Grand & Cutler Ltd, , ISBN 0729303950
★
External links
★
★
★ Worldly and Personal Influences on Voltaire's Writing
★ Thesis statements and important quotes from Candide
★ The electronic text of ''Candide'' and ''Candide, Part II''
This article provided by Wikipedia. To edit the contents of this article, click here for original source.
psst.. try this: add to faves
Featured Companies
| Golf Holidays International | |
| Destinations Unlimited |
