:''For other uses, see
Christianity,
Christian denominations, or
Church (disambiguation).''
The 'Christian Church' is the universal
institution embodying the
Christian faith, the religion based on the worship of
Jesus of Nazareth as the son of
God. The concept as it was known beginning in 30-33 A.D.,expresses the idea that the followers of the religion can all be seen as part of one single group. Although today there is no single political entity recognized by the secular world as the unique Christian Church,
[1]; each of the Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches claims to be the unique church established by Jesus the Messiah. Protestants would hold that the concept is justified by the notion that the Church is ultimately headed by Jesus Christ who acts as the unifying figure for all who claim to follow Him. The phrase "'The Church'" in its widest sense (as "the Body of Christ") has a similar breadth.
Terminology
Through history there have been various terms that have been used to express the concept of a united Christian Church. This section discusses some of these.
The English word ''church'' derives from the
Greek κυριακή (kyriake), "Lord's (house)".
[2][3] The term has expanded over time to the allow today's more general meanings.
The
Greek/
Latin word ''εκκλησια''/''ecclesia'', literally "assembly" in Greek, is the traditional
Roman Catholic/
Orthodox term referring to the Christian Church. Most
Romance languages use derivations of this word. This Latin word is sometimes used in English as well.
The phrase ''One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church'' appears in the
Nicene Creed () and, in part, in the
Apostles' Creed ("the holy catholic church", ἁγίαν καθολικὴν ἐκκλησίαν).
[4][5] The phrase is intended to set forth the four marks, or identifying signs, of the Christian Church — unity, holiness, universality, and apostolicity — and is based on the premise that all true Christians form a single united group founded by the
apostles.
[6]
The terms ''
orthodox Church'' and ''orthodox faith'' (not to be confused with the modern term "Eastern Orthodox" with a capital 'O') have been used to distinguish what is considered the ''true'' Church from groups considered ''
heretical''. The term became especially prominent in referring to the doctrine of the
Nicene Creed and, in historical contexts, is often still used to distinguish this first "official" doctrine from others.
[7]
The term ''
body of Christ'' (cf. ), also known as the ''Bride of Christ'', is used to refer to the total community of Christians seen as interdependent in a single entity headed by
Jesus Christ.
[8]
The phrase ''Church Militant and Church Triumphant'' (Ecclesia Militans, Ecclesia Triumphans) is used to express the concept of a united Church that extends beyond the earthly realm into Heaven.
[9] The term ''Church Militant'' comprises all living Christians while ''Church Triumphant'' comprises those in
Heaven. Within the
Roman Catholic Church there is also the concept of ''Church Suffering'', or ''Church Expectant'', comprising those Christians in Purgatory.
The term ''Communion of Saints'' expresses the idea of a shared faith which, through
prayer, binds all Christians regardless of the physical separation or separation by death. In Roman Catholic theology this would be differentiated from the Church Militant and Church Triumphant alone because it also includes the Church Suffering.
[10]
History
Main articles: History of Christianity
The Christian Church originated in
Roman Judea in the first century AD, founded on the teachings of
Jesus of
Nazareth believed by all Christians to be the
Messiah, or deliverer king, of the
Jewish people. The precise start of the Church is considered to be at Pentecost, but it is usually thought of as originating with Jesus'
Apostles. According to
scripture Jesus
commanded the Apostles to spread his teachings to all the world.
Although springing out of the first century
Jewish faith, from its earliest days
some sects of the Church accepted non-
Jews without requiring them to adopt Jewish customs (e.g.
circumcision), running counter to tradition.
[11][12] Conflict with Jewish religious authorities quickly led to the expulsion of the Christians from the
synagogues in
Jerusalem[13], see also
Council of Jamnia.
The Church gradually spread through the
Roman Empire and outside it gaining major establishments in cities such as
Jerusalem,
Antioch, and
Edessa.
[14][15][16] Christianity became a widely persecuted religion,
hated by the Jewish authorities as a
heresy, and by the
Roman authorities because, like Judaism, its
monotheistic teachings were fundamentally foreign to the
traditions of the ancient world, as well as a challenge to the
imperial cult.
[17] Despite this the Church grew rapidly until finally legalized and then promoted by Emperors
Galerius and
Constantine in the
fourth century. A major controversy as the Church was being
formalized was the
Arianism vs.
Trinitarianism debate which occupied the Church during the
fourth century.
[18][19]
After various Church councils (
Nicaea,
Tyre,
Rimini,
Seleucia,
Constantinople, etc.), the matter was effectively settled by the Trinitarian Emperor
Theodosius I who made Christianity the
state religion (some
Germanic tribes, though, remained Arian well into the
Middle Ages).
[20] This period would begin the long-term persecution of
pagans and "heretical" Christians in the Empire and the kingdoms that followed.
[21] See also
Christendom.
The Church of the Roman Empire was divided into Patriarchal Sees with five holding particular prominence, one in the
West (
Rome), and the rest in the
East (
Constantinople,
Jerusalem,
Antioch, and
Alexandria). The
bishops of these five would become the
Patriarchs of the Church.
[22] Even after the
split of the Roman Empire the Church remained a relatively united institution (excluding
Oriental Orthodoxy and some other groups which separated from the rest of the Church earlier). The Church came to be a central and defining institution of the Empire, especially in the East. In particular,
Constantinople would come to be seen as the center of the Christian world, owing in great part to its economic and political
power.
[23][24]
Once the
Western Empire fell to
Germanic incursions in the 5th century, the (Roman) Church for centuries became the primary link to
Roman civilization for
Medieval Western Europe[25] and an important channel of influence in the West for the
Eastern Roman, or ''Byzantine'', emperors. While, in the West, Christianity struggled as the so-called
orthodox (i.e. Roman) Church competed against the
Arian Christian and
pagan faiths of the Germanic rulers, the Eastern Romans spread Christianity to the pagan
Slavs establishing the Church in what is now
Russia and
Eastern Europe.
[26] The reign of
Charlemagne in Western Europe is particularly noted for bringing the last major Western tribes outside of the Church into communion with Rome, in part through conquest and forced conversion.
Starting in the
7th century the
Islamic Caliphates rose and gradually began to conquer larger and larger areas of the
Christian world.
Excepting
southern Spain and a few smaller areas, Northern and western Europe for centuries escaped largely unscathed by Islamic expansion in great part because Constantinople and its empire acted as a magnet for the onslaught.
[27] The challenge presented by the Muslims would help to solidify the religious identify of eastern Christians even as it gradually weakened the Eastern Empire.
[28]
Even in the
Muslim World, the Church survived (e.g. the modern
Copts,
Maronites, and others) albeit at times with great difficulty.
[29][30]
Although there had long been frictions between the
Patriarch of Rome (i.e. the
Western ''Pope'') and the other patriarchs, Rome's
changing allegiance from Constantinople to the
Frankish king Charlemagne set the Church on a course towards separation. The political and theological divisions would grow until Rome excommunicated the East in the
11th century, ultimately leading to the division of the Church into the
Western (Roman Catholic) and
Eastern (Eastern Orthodox) Churches.
As a result of the
redevelopment of Western Europe, and the
gradual fall of the Eastern Roman Empire to the
Arabs and
Turks (helped by
warfare against Eastern Christians). With the final
Fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD the period of the
Western Renaissance began in the West, as the result of Eastern scholars bringing ancient manuscripts fleeing the Moslem hordes.
Rome came to be seen by the Western Church as Christianity's heartland.
[32] Some Eastern churches even broke with Eastern Orthodoxy and entered into communion with Rome. The changes brought on by the Renaissance eventually led to the
Protestant Reformation during which the Protestant Lutheran and Anglican, and the Reformed followers of Calvin, Hus, Zwingli, Melancthon, Knox, and others split from the Roman Catholic Church. Then during the
Age of Exploration and the
Age of Imperialism, Western Europe spread the Roman Catholic Church and the Protestant and Reformed Churches around the world, especially in the
Americas.
[33][34] These developments in turn have led to Christianity's being the largest religion in the world today.
[35]
Related Concepts
Catholicism
The term ''
catholic'' is derived from the
Greek adjective ''καθολικός'' (''katholikos''), which means "general", "universal".
[36] This term appears in both the
Nicene Creed and the
Apostle's Creed, statements of faith adhered to by almost all modern denominations. When the word "catholic" or "universal" is applied to the Church, it is generally intended to indicate that the institution is the uniquely legitimate Christian Church intended for all of humanity. In
Christian theology the term is often used to imply a calling to spread the faith throughout the whole world and to all ages. It is also thought of as implying that the Church is endowed with all the means of
salvation for its members.
Saint
Ignatius of Antioch, the earliest known writer to use the phrase "the Catholic Church", excluded from it
heterodox groups whose teaching and practice conflicted with those of the
bishops of the Catholic Church. In keeping with this idea, many churches/communions see groups that it judges to be in a state of
heresy or
schism with their church/communion as not part of the catholic Church (e.g. the
Roman Catholic and
Eastern Orthodox Churches follow this doctrine).
Others have, since the
Protestant Reformation, used the word "Catholic" to designate instead adherence to the doctrines and essential practices of the historical institutional Churches, in contrast to those propounded by the Reformers. In this sense indicated in this paragraph, ''Catholic'' tends to be written with an upper-case 'C'.
The Roman Catholic Church, the
Eastern Orthodox Church, and the
Oriental Orthodox Churches all see themselves as fully "catholic" in all the foregoing senses. Some
Anglicans see their Communion as a component part of the Catholic Church, albeit not subject to the
Holy See of Rome, and maintain beliefs and practices akin to those of the Roman Catholic Church.
Some
Protestant denominations interpret "catholic", especially in its creedal context, as referring to the concept of the eternal church of Christ and the Elect, referenced in the
Bible in phrases such as "
body of Christ"
[37] and "great cloud of witnesses."
[37] Expressed in the language of traditional Roman Catholicism this Protestant interpretation of the words "one holy, catholic, and Apostolic church" identifies the "one holy, catholic, and Apostolic church" exclusively with the
Church Triumphant - i.e. the church that exists "in heaven" or in eternity as opposed to the
Church Militant which is the communion of the faithful here on Earth. They view this understanding of "catholic" as necessarily distinct from any concrete expression in an institutional Church. In this last sense, ''catholic'' tends to be written with a lower-case 'c'.
Orthodoxy
The term ''
orthodoxy'' is generally used to distinguish the faith of the "true Church" from other doctrines which disagree (traditionally referred to as
heresy). This distinction can be seen as originating with the
biblical proscriptions against
false prophets. "Orthodoxy" means both "true glory" and "correct teaching" this theological term is explicitly used by Orthodox Christians to refer to themselves -- as a shorthand for "The One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic, Orthodox and Orthoprax, Church of Jesus Christ and His Saints. Of course, Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Reformed believers who disbelieve the claims of the Orthodox Church; refer to her as the "Eastern Orthodox" church.
This concept of "Orthodoxy" began to take on particular significance during the reign of the
Roman Emperor Constantine, the first to actively promote the Christian religion. Constantine convened the first
Ecumenical Council, the
Council of Nicea, which attempted to provide the first universal creed of the Christian faith. The major issue of this and other councils during the
fourth century was the
christological debate between
Arianism and
Trinitarianism. Trinitarianism is the official doctrine of the Catholic Church and is strongly associated with the term ''orthodoxy'' (although some modern non-Trinitarian churches dispute this usage). Churches that subscribe to the
Nicene Creed, the first official Trinitarian
creed, are sometimes referred to as ''orthodox''.
Apostolic succession
Main articles: Apostolic succession
The doctrine of ''
Apostolic succession'' asserts that the bishops of the true Church enjoy the favor, or
grace, of God as a result of legitimate succession from
Jesus' apostles.
[39] Modern bishops, therefore, must be viewed as an unbroken line of leadership from the original apostles. Note that this doctrine is distinct
Papal supremacy which grants
Roman Catholic Bishop of Rome special privilege in the Roman Catholic Church.
The
Roman Catholic Church, the
Eastern Orthodox Churches,
Oriental Orthodoxy, and others interpret the adjective "apostolic" as referring not only to the Church's origin from Christ's
Apostles and their teaching, but also to the Church's structure around
bishops who have succeeded the Apostles by unbroken succession transmitted by episcopal consecration ("laying on of hands"). A modern variant of this interpretation, held by many in the non-trinitarian "Apostolic church movement", including some
Pentecostal groups, is that ''Apostolic'' refers to the charismatic gift of apostleship, which they claim continues to be granted by the Spirit to the faithful Church today. Reformed
Evangelical Christians hold that the ''Apostolic Church'' of the Creed corresponds to no one , but is instead the aggregate of all "true" Christians, regardless of denominational allegiance, who hold the faith of the Apostles.
[37][37]
Divisions and controversies
Today the churches that consider themselves to be Christian are numerous with a variety of different doctrines and traditions. There are many controversies between the
denominations which persist today.
A simplified chart of historical branches within the Christian Church. The different width of the lines (thickest for "Protestantism" and thinnest for "Oriental Orthodox" and "Nestorians") is without objective significance. Protestantism in general, and not just Restorationism, claims a direct connection with Early Christianity.
Definition of the Christian Church
One significant controversy is simply the definition of the Christian or Catholic Church. To some degree this controversy is related to the
Nicene Creed, to which virtually all modern denominations subscribe (albeit in somewhat different forms), which specifically references a
catholic, or universal, church. The
Roman Catholic Church has traditionally regarded itself as the unique Christian Church (hence the name) although in the
20th century this view has
softened to some degree.
[42] The
Orthodox Church regards itself as the One true Church of Christ.
Many other Christian groups take the view that all denominations are part of a global Christian Church which is a body bound by a common faith if not a common administration or tradition. Note that in
classical times the term ''Catholic Church'' came to be most widely used in reference to the official Roman Imperial Church from which most modern Christian Churches descend directly or indirectly. The term, however, dates back to the
Apostles' Creed which predates the official sanction of the Church by the Empire. Like the Roman Catholic Church, the Orthodox Church and some others have always referred to themselves as the ''Catholic Church''.
[43] Oriental Orthodoxy shares this view, seeing the Churches of the Oriental Orthodox communion as constituting the one true Church. In the
West the term ''Catholic'' has come to be most commonly associated with the Roman Catholic Church because of its size and influence in the West (although in formal contexts most other churches still reject this naming).
These Churches believe that the term "one" in the
Nicene Creed describes and prescribes a visible institutional unity, not only geographically (throughout the world), but also historically (throughout history). They see unity as one of the four marks that the Creed attributes to the genuine Church, and the essence of a mark is that it be visible. A Church whose identity and belief varied from country to country and from age to age would not be "one". In the
New Testament, the word "Church" or "assembly" - (''ekklesia'') in the original language - normally refers to believers on earth, and they conclude that the Creed's description "one" must be applicable to the Church on earth and must not be reserved for some
eschatological reality. The only exception to the normal New Testament use of the word "" is the mention of the " of the firstborn who are enrolled in heaven" in ; and even there the Christians to whom the letter is addressed are associated with that heavenly Church ("you have come to..."). In line with this passage, the ancient Churches mentioned see the
saints too - that is, the holy dead - as part of the one Church and not as ex-members, so that Christians both in the present life and the afterlife form a single Church.
Many
Anglicans,
Lutherans,
Old Catholics, and
Independent Catholics view unity as a mark of catholicity, but see the institutional unity of the Catholic Church as manifested in the shared
Apostolic Succession of their episcopacies, rather than a shared episcopal hierarchy or rites.
Reformed Christians hold that every person justified by faith in the Gospel committed to the Apostles is a member of "One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church". From this perspective, the real unity and holiness of the whole church established through the Apostles is yet to be revealed; and meanwhile, the extent and peace of the church on earth is imperfectly realized in a visible way.
Apostolic succession
As mentioned in the previous section, another controversy is the concept of
apostolic succession, the notion that in order to be legitimate the Church leadership must descend in some fashion from
Jesus' apostles. The nature of this requirement is widely debated (some sects arguing whether this is a requirement at all).
The oldest concept is that there must be an unbroken succession of leadership connecting the Church to the original apostles and this definition was used by the Church in the
Roman Empire as its justification for legitimacy. This justification has continued to be argued by both the
Roman Catholic Church and
Orthodox Churches
(as well as the
Oriental Orthodox Churches) as their claim of legitimacy. The Roman Catholic Church has traditionally been the most vocal in claiming itself to have
unique legitimacy in apostolic succession (based in part on Matthew 16:18
[44]).
Most of the
Protestant churches, by contrast, argue in some manner that their connection to the original apostles is spiritual and doctrinal and that episcopal continuity
is not a necessary requirement.
First church
The fish (Classical Greek ΙΧΘΥΣ, an acronym meaning Jesus Christ, Son Of God, Saviour) was a symbol of the early Church.
The right to be considered the ''first'' or ''oldest'' Christian church has been a point of contention historically. Christianity, of course, began in
Roman Judea and gradually spread westward into
Asia Minor,
Egypt,
Illyria,
Rome and eventually the entire
Empire. Historically the first city to consider itself truly Christian was
Antioch and, as such, the
Church of Antioch[45] there considers itself the be the first true Christian Church, deriving its authority directly from the apostles
Peter and
Paul. The Roman Catholic Church has traditionally argued that Saint Peter, appointed by
Jesus as the head of the Church, eventually moved to
Rome establishing himself and his successors in Rome as the true leaders of Christianity making the Roman Catholic Church the actual original Church. The Orthodox Church (of which the
Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch is a member) has argued that the scripture in no way designated Saint Peter as having unique authority over the Church and argues that all of the original
Patriarchates of the
Roman Empire, including Rome, trace their roots to the apostles. As such all of the Patriarchates, those of Orthodoxy as well as Rome which split from the rest during the
Great Schism, are part of the original Church.
Other debates
Other debates in the Church (or in the ''churches'' depending on one's perspective) include the following.
★ There are many opinions as to the ultimate fate of the souls of individuals who are not part of a particular church (i.e. members of a particular church may or may not believe that those outside their church can be ''saved'').
★ There have always been differing opinions as to the divinity of
Jesus and/or His unity with ''God, the Father''. Although historically the most significant debate in this arena was the
Arianism/
Trinitarianism debate in the Roman Empire, debates in this realm have occurred throughout Christian history.
★ It has been debated whether or not the Christian Church is in fact a unified
heavenly institution with the earthly institutions relegated to secondary status.
Criticisms
Throughout its history the Christian Church, both in terms of individual groups as well as the Church as a whole, has received many criticisms from outside detractors as well as its own members. This section discusses criticisms of the institution of the Church and its constituent congregations. For discussions of criticisms of the religion in general, see the
Criticism of Christianity article.
The Church has commonly been criticized for not following the example of
Jesus in terms of accepting others.
[46] Biblical passages relate stories of Jesus' accepting children, women, Gentiles, and adulterers in situations where the religious establishment and the society of the time would have rejected them. From early times the Church has been seen by some as being intolerant of outsiders and prone to fierce internal disputes. From the point of Christianity becoming the official religion of the
Roman Empire in 391 it came to adopt the sanctions of the previous state pagan religion against non-Christians or those thought of as
heretics, sometimes including the death penalty. The
Northern Crusades against
Baltic pagans and the
Albigensian Crusade against the
Cathar heretics used systematic violence to enforce conversion, with the approval of the Western Church.
See also
★
Christendom
★
Church militant and church triumphant
★
Christian ecumenism
★
List of Christian denominations
★
Creed
★
History of Christianity
★
Germanic Christianity
★
Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral
★
Catechism of the Catholic Church
Notes
1. ''Christian Denominations'', Religious Facts, retrieved May 29, 2007[1]
2. ''church'', Robertson's Words for a Modern Age:
A Dictionary of Latin and Greek Words used in Modern English
Vocabulary[2]
3. Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2006[3]
4. ''Nicene Creed'', The Seven Ecumenical Councils, Christian Classics Ethereal Library[4]
5. ''Apostle's Creed'', Christian Classics Ethereal Library[5]
6. Kenneth D. Whitehead, Four Marks of the Church, EWTN Global Catholic Network[6]
7. Michael Hines, ''CONSTANTINE AND THE CHRISTIAN STATE'', Church History for the Masses[7]
8. Saint ''Paul, the Apostle: The body of Christ'', Encyclopedia Britannica[8]
9. Karl Adam, THE SPIRIT OF CATHOLICISM, Eternal Word Television Network, retrieved May 24, 2007[9]
10. ''communion of saints'', Encyclopedia Britannica[10]
11. Bible, Acts 10-15
12. ''CHURCH AS AN INSTITUTION'', Dictionary of the History of Ideas, University of Virginia Library[11]
13. ''An Overview of Christian History'', Catholic Resources for Bible, Liturgy, and More[12]
14. ''Acts of the Apostles'', New Advent[13]
15. Donald H. Frew, ''Harran: Last Refuge of Classical Paganism'' Colorado State University Pueblo[14]
16. ''From Jesus to Christ: Maps, Archaeology, and Sources: Chronology'', PBS, retrieved May 19, 2007[15]
17. Sophie Lunn-Rockliffe, ''Christianity and the Roman Empire: Reasons for persecution'', Ancient History: Romans, BBC Home, retrieved May 10, 2007[16]
18. ''Arianism summary'', Bookrags.com, retrieved May 18, 2007[17]
19. Michael DiMaio, Jr., Robert Frakes, ''Constantius II (337-361 A.D.)'', De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families[18]
20. ''Christianity Missions and monasticism'',
Encyclopaedia Britannica Online[19]
21. Ramsay MacMullen, ''Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries'', Yale University Press, September 23, 1997
22. Deno Geanakoplos, ''A short history of the ecumenical patriarchate of Constantinople'', Archons of the Ecumenical Patriarch, retrieved May 20, 2007[20]
23. MSN Encarta: Orthodox Church, retrieved May 12, 2007[21]
24. Arias of Study: Western Art, Department of Art History, University of Wisconsin, retrieved May 17, 2007[22]
25. ''What were the Dark Ages?'', GotQuestions.org, retrieved May 20, 2007[23]
26. ''CHRISTIANITY IN HISTORY'', Dictionary of the History of Ideas, University of Virginia Library[24]
27. ''The Byzantine Empire'', byzantinos.com[25]
28. ''BYZANTINE ICONOCLASM AND POLITICAL EARTHQUAKE OF ARAB CONQUESTS – AN EMOTIONAL ‘GUST’'', This Century's Review, retrieved May 24, 2007[26]
29. ''The History of the Copts'', California Academy of Sciences[27], retrieved May 24, 2007
30. ''History of the Maronite Patriarchate'', Opus Libani, retrieved May 24, 2007[28]
31. UNESCO World Heritage: Vatican City[29]
32. Aristeides Papadakis, John Meyendorff , ''The Christian East and the Rise of the Papacy: The Church 1071-1453 A.D.'', St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, August 1994, ISBN-10: 0881410578, ISBN-13: 978-0881410570
33. ''Christianity and world religions'', Encyclopedia Britannica[30]
34. ''South America:
Religion'', Encyclopedia Britannica[31]
35. ''Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents'', Adherents.com[32]
36. Tufts University: Perseus Digital Library: A Greek-English Lexicon[33]
37.
38.
39. ''Apostolic Succession'', The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05.[34]
40.
41.
42. Catechism of the Catholic Church, 870
43. The Greek (Eastern) Orthodox Church in America Robert G. Stephanopoulos
44. Bible, Matthew 16:18[35]
45. Bible, Acts 11:19-26
46. Rubel Shelly, ''Loving the Person Who Isn't "One of Us"'', Woodmont Hills Church of Christ[36]
References
★ University of Virginia: Dictionary of the History of Ideas: ''Christianity in History'', retrieved May 10, 2007
[37]
★ University of Virginia: Dictionary of the History of Ideas: ''Church as an Institution'', retrieved May 10, 2007
[38]
★ ''Christianity and the Roman Empire'', Ancient History Romans, BBC Home, retrieved May 10, 2007
[39]
★ ''Orthodox Church'', MSN Encarta, retrieved May 10, 2007
[40]
★ Catechism of the Catholic Church
[41]
★ Robert G. Stephanopoulos. The Greek (Eastern) Orthodox Church in America. Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America. Retrieved on 2007-08-01.
[42]
★ Mark Gstohl, Theological Perspectives of the Reformation, ''The Magisterial Reformation'', retrived May 10, 2007
[43]
★ J. Faber, ''The Catholicity of the Belgic Confession'', Spindle Works, The Canadian Reformed Magazine 18 (Sept. 20-27, Oct. 4-11, 18, Nov. 1, 8, 1969) -
[44]
★ Boise State University: History of the Crusades: ''The Fourth Crusade''
[45]
★ United States Conference of Catholic Bishops: ARTICLE 9 "I BELIEVE IN THE HOLY CATHOLIC CHURCH": 830-831
[46]: Provides Roman Catholic interpretations of the term ''catholic''
★ Kenneth D. Whitehead, ''Four Marks of the Church'', EWTN Global Catholic Network
[47]
★ ''Unity (as a Mark of the Church)'', New Advent
[48]
★ ''Apostolic Succession'', The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05.
[49]
★ Gerd Ludemann, ''Heretics: The Other Side of Early Christianity'', Westminster John Knox Press, 1st American ed edition (August 1996), ISBN-10: 0664220851, ISBN-13: 978-0664220853
★ ''From Jesus to Christ: Maps, Archaeology, and Sources: Chronology'', PBS, retrieved May 19, 2007
[50]
_-_The_Last_Supper_(1495-1498).jpg)
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