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'''Comrade''' is a term meaning "friend," "colleague," or "ally." The term originally carried a strong military connotation, and referred to a roommate.
The term "comrade" (and its equivalent in other languages) usually means "a fellow socialist" or "a fellow Communist".
This usage was inspired by the French Revolution. Upon abolishing the titles of nobility, and the terms ''monsieur'' and ''madame'' (literally, "milord" and "milady"), the revolutionaries employed the term ''citoyen(ne)'' (meaning "citizen") to refer to each other. The deposed King Louis XVI, for instance, was referred to as ''Citoyen Louis Capet'' to emphasize his loss of privilege.
When the socialist movement gained momentum in the mid-19th century, socialists began to look for an egalitarian alternative to terms like "Mister", "Miss", or "Missus". They chose "comrade" as their preferred term of address. In English, the first known use of the word with this meaning was in 1884 in the socialist magazine ''Justice''. In French, the first use of the equivalent term, "''camarade''," among political leftists was in 1790.[1]
After the Russian Revolution, the Russian version of this term (товарищ, '''tovarishch''') was championed by the Bolsheviks. The use of "comrade" soon became widespread among Communists worldwide (much more so than among socialists who were not supporters of the Communist International).
During the Russian Civil War, the Tsarist White Russians used the word ''comrades'' ('''tovarishchi''') as a derogatory term for their Bolshevik enemies, particularly those involved in the Red Army and the soviets. Western politicians and comedians sometimes humorously mock left-wing opponents by calling them "comrade."
Because of its use by communists, the term is now strongly associated with communism, particularly the Marxist-Leninist, Stalinist and Trotskyist varieties, and the Soviet Union. The term can be affixed to titles to add a Soviet flavor (e.g. "Comrade Colonel"). The usage is fairly flexible. For instance, one might be referred to as ''Comrade Lenin'' or ''Comrade Chairman'', or simply as ''Comrade''. Overuse of the word is a common characteristic of communist stereotypes on television and in films. In reality, it was employed rarely, reserved mainly for formal or official settings, in largely the same way that terms like "Mister" and "Sir" are employed. The term is still widely used today by the armed forces—superior officers are normally addressed as "Comrade Colonel," "Comrade General," or the like.
Second common use of the term is simply a "friend", most often a schoolmate (as in 'he is my товарищ since high school'.)
In Chinese, the translation of ''comrade'' is "同志" (), lit. meaning "(people with) the same spirit, goal, ambition, etc." It was best known for its widespread use in mainland China after the People's Republic of China was founded, for basically anyone. However, after the 1980s and the onset of China's market-oriented reforms, this term has been moving out of daily usage. It remains in use as a respectful term of public address among middle-aged Chinese and members of the Communist Party of China. Within the Communist Party, failure to address a fellow member as ''tóng zhì'' is seen as a subtle but unmistakable sign of disrespect and enmity.
At party or civil meetings, the usage of the term has been retained. Officials often address each other as ''Tongzhi'', and thus the usage here is not limited to Communist Party members alone. In addition, ''Tongzhi'' is the term of preference to address any national leader when their titles are not attached (i.e. ''Comrade'' Mao Zedong, ''comrade'' Deng Xiaoping etc.).
The ''Kuomintang'' (Nationalist Party) also has a long tradition of using the term ''comrade'' (同志) to refer to its members, usually as a noun rather than a title; for example, a KMT member would say "Mr. Zhang is a loyal and reliable comrade (同志)."
Due to the character "同" (meaning "same") and the fact that "同性恋" (tóng xìng lián) is the technical term corresponding to "homosexual" in English, ''Tongzhi'' has recently become a slang term meaning "gay".
In South Africa, comrade is associated with the liberation struggle more generally and the African National Congress in particular. The members of unions affiliated to the ANC through their union federation use the term comrade to refer to each other. Comrade can also be a way of describing someone who is an activist, although it has an association with the ANC and the struggle against apartheid or economic inequality.
In Zimbabwe, the term is only used to people who are affiliated to the ruling part, ZANU (PF) where the state media also use Cde as short for comrade. Members of the opposition mainly the MDC are oftenly referred by their names or Mr, Mrs or Prof. This is despite the fact that the population in general is not happy with it.
In modern Germany the term ''Genosse'' is usually preferred over ''Kamerad'' by those on the political left. This is due to the association of the term with militarism as well as its use by the NSDAP during the Third Reich. ''Kamerad'' continues to be used today by those on the German far-right. ''Kamerad'' is also used in non-political situations such as within the Bundeswehr, among firemen and in schools for classmates (''Klassenkamerad'').
★ In Albanian, the word ''shok'' (from Latin ''socius'') was used within communist circles.
★ The Arabic word رفيق (''Rafiq'') (meaning ''friend'') is used with the same political connotation as "comrade." The term is used both amongst Arab communists as well as within the Ba’ath movement. The term predates modern political usage, and is an Islamic male proper name. Iranian communists also use the exact term.
★ The Armenian word for Comrade is ընկեր ("''unger''") for boys and men, ընկերուհի ("''ungerouhi''") for girls and women. This word literally translates as "friend". The term is known to be used by members of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation when addressing to other members of the party. The term is also used by the Armenian Communist Party.
★ The Bulgarian word for Comrade is "другар" (drugar). It translates as friend or colleague. It can be applied to teachers as well.
★ The Croatian term which is equivalent to Comrade is drug, drugar and drugarica for females. In the period between World War II and Tito's death, it was applied to almost everybody: teachers, officials, etc. Today it is not used commonly, but it translates as "friend".
★ The Czech word for Comrade is ''soudruh'', although the cognate ''kamarád'' is also seen. The latter translates as "friend".
★ The Dutch word is ''kameraad''. And although it can be used to refer to communists or an acquaintance, it is used in dialects to appoint someone's friend.
★ The Esperanto word for Comrade is "kamarado" in the sense of a friend. The word "samideano", literally "same-thinker" is the equivalent of "Comrade" in the Communist sense.
★ The Finnish word is ''Toveri'' which literally translates as "buddy".
★ The French word is "camarade". It is mainly used by communists but can apply for classmates and soldiers.
★ The Hungarian word for Comrade is ''elvtárs''. Literally, ''elvtárs'' means "policy fellow". The term is used only for Communists - Socialists don't use it.
★ The Icelandic word for Comrade is ''félagi''. It is used as a less intimate alternative to ''vinur'' (friend). It is also the word used for a "member" of club or association. When used as a title to precede a name (i.e. ''félagi Tító'' or ''félagi Dimitroff'') it has a communist implication.
★ The Italian word for Comrade is ''compagno'', meaning "fellow". It is seldom used in its political meaning, as it is seen as derogatory or stereotypical. The word ''camerata'', meaning "roommate", is the fascist equivalent.
★ The Japanese word for Comrade is "同志 (''dōshi'')", the same word used in Chinese. The word is used to refer to like-minded persons and the usage is not necessarily limited by Communists, though the word is to some extent associated with Communism. The word should not be confused with a homonym "同士", which is a more commonly used postfix to show people sharing a certain property.
★ In Korean, a good equivalent of the word would be "동무(''dongmu'')", literally meaning "friend". Although the word was originally used by the Korean people all over the Korean Peninsula, people living south of the 38th Parallel begin avoiding using the word after a communist regime was set up in the north. In North Korea, the word replaced all prior social titles and earned a new meaning as "a fellow man fighting for the revolution". Today, usage of the word "동무" in South Korea could attract suspicious eyes from the public, as it has been stereotyped that only communists would use the word.
★ In the Philippines, communist and left-leaning activists prefer the term ''kasama'' (roughly, companion), and the short form, ''ka'' before the name. As in labor leader, ''Ka'' Bel (Crispin Beltran).
★ In Poland, the word is ''towarzysz'', which is the same as the Russian word.
★ In Portugal and Brazil, the word is ''camarada'', now being commonly employed to sarcastically refer to communists or supporters of the communist system (result of the overusage of the term in the post-revolutionary society). It is also prevalent in the army, and has been gaining popularity among nationalist movements.
★ In Romanian the exact translation is ''camarad'' which does not bear a political connotation, referring mainly to wartime allies and friends. The term used during the communist era was ''tovarăş'', which is the same as the Russian word.
★ The Serbian word for Comrade is ''drug'' and is a regular word for 'friend'.
★ The Slovak word for Comrade is ''súdruh''. Slovak language also knows a term "kamarát" too, but it is normally translated as a friend.
★ In Slovenia comrade is similar to the Russian translation - ''Tovariš'', which incidentally can also mean "teacher".
★ In Spain, the word is ''compañero'' / ''compañera'' ("companion"); the term ''camarada'' ("companion", "friend") has also been used, but it's more associated with the communist tradition.
:The standard form in Cuba is ''compañero'' / ''compañera'', as it was in socialist Nicaragua and Chile. In some parts of Latin America, ''camarada'' is the more frequent word, except in Peru, where the term is commonly associated with ''Shining Path'', members of social-democrat party APRA employ ''compañero'' to refer to fellow members of the party.
★ In Swahili, the equivalent word is ''ndugu'' for brother-in-arms, or ''dada'' for a female comrade.
★ The Swedish word is ''kamrat''. Although it can be associated with communist lingo it may just as well be used to refer to a friend, a co-worker (''arbetskamrat'') or a classmate in school (''klasskamrat'' or ''skolkamrat'').
★ The Tamil word for Comrade is ''Thozhare'' (தோழரே) and is a regular word for 'friend'.
★ The Thai word ''sahai'' (สหาย) was used in the communist movement.
★ The Turkish word ''Yoldaş'' (literally co-traveller) has become used within the communist movement. In the climate of harsh anticommunist repression the word largely disappeared from common usage.
★ In the United Kingdom, the term "comrade" is still used as a form of address among some Labour Party members, although it is much less common than formerly. Used for headmasters. Wirral Grammar School for Boys
★ In the United States, the word "comrade" carries a very strong connotation of being associated with Communism, Marxism-Leninism, and the Soviet Union in general. Especially during the Cold War, to address someone as "comrade" marked either the speaker, person addressed, or both as suspected communist sympathizers. It is still used in its generic context by some American socialists, even strong anti-communists. It latterly is frequently used with humorous intent.
In George Orwell's novel ''Animal Farm'', the animals all refer to each other as comrade, as the story is a satirical look at the Russian Revolution.
1. "1790, sens polit." - ''Larousse Dictionnaire d'Étymologie'', Paris, 2001.
| Contents |
| Political use |
| Russian use |
| Chinese usage |
| Southern Africa |
| German usage |
| In other languages |
| Animal Farm |
| References |
Political use
The term "comrade" (and its equivalent in other languages) usually means "a fellow socialist" or "a fellow Communist".
This usage was inspired by the French Revolution. Upon abolishing the titles of nobility, and the terms ''monsieur'' and ''madame'' (literally, "milord" and "milady"), the revolutionaries employed the term ''citoyen(ne)'' (meaning "citizen") to refer to each other. The deposed King Louis XVI, for instance, was referred to as ''Citoyen Louis Capet'' to emphasize his loss of privilege.
When the socialist movement gained momentum in the mid-19th century, socialists began to look for an egalitarian alternative to terms like "Mister", "Miss", or "Missus". They chose "comrade" as their preferred term of address. In English, the first known use of the word with this meaning was in 1884 in the socialist magazine ''Justice''. In French, the first use of the equivalent term, "''camarade''," among political leftists was in 1790.[1]
Russian use
After the Russian Revolution, the Russian version of this term (товарищ, '''tovarishch''') was championed by the Bolsheviks. The use of "comrade" soon became widespread among Communists worldwide (much more so than among socialists who were not supporters of the Communist International).
During the Russian Civil War, the Tsarist White Russians used the word ''comrades'' ('''tovarishchi''') as a derogatory term for their Bolshevik enemies, particularly those involved in the Red Army and the soviets. Western politicians and comedians sometimes humorously mock left-wing opponents by calling them "comrade."
Because of its use by communists, the term is now strongly associated with communism, particularly the Marxist-Leninist, Stalinist and Trotskyist varieties, and the Soviet Union. The term can be affixed to titles to add a Soviet flavor (e.g. "Comrade Colonel"). The usage is fairly flexible. For instance, one might be referred to as ''Comrade Lenin'' or ''Comrade Chairman'', or simply as ''Comrade''. Overuse of the word is a common characteristic of communist stereotypes on television and in films. In reality, it was employed rarely, reserved mainly for formal or official settings, in largely the same way that terms like "Mister" and "Sir" are employed. The term is still widely used today by the armed forces—superior officers are normally addressed as "Comrade Colonel," "Comrade General," or the like.
Second common use of the term is simply a "friend", most often a schoolmate (as in 'he is my товарищ since high school'.)
Chinese usage
In Chinese, the translation of ''comrade'' is "同志" (), lit. meaning "(people with) the same spirit, goal, ambition, etc." It was best known for its widespread use in mainland China after the People's Republic of China was founded, for basically anyone. However, after the 1980s and the onset of China's market-oriented reforms, this term has been moving out of daily usage. It remains in use as a respectful term of public address among middle-aged Chinese and members of the Communist Party of China. Within the Communist Party, failure to address a fellow member as ''tóng zhì'' is seen as a subtle but unmistakable sign of disrespect and enmity.
At party or civil meetings, the usage of the term has been retained. Officials often address each other as ''Tongzhi'', and thus the usage here is not limited to Communist Party members alone. In addition, ''Tongzhi'' is the term of preference to address any national leader when their titles are not attached (i.e. ''Comrade'' Mao Zedong, ''comrade'' Deng Xiaoping etc.).
The ''Kuomintang'' (Nationalist Party) also has a long tradition of using the term ''comrade'' (同志) to refer to its members, usually as a noun rather than a title; for example, a KMT member would say "Mr. Zhang is a loyal and reliable comrade (同志)."
Due to the character "同" (meaning "same") and the fact that "同性恋" (tóng xìng lián) is the technical term corresponding to "homosexual" in English, ''Tongzhi'' has recently become a slang term meaning "gay".
Southern Africa
In South Africa, comrade is associated with the liberation struggle more generally and the African National Congress in particular. The members of unions affiliated to the ANC through their union federation use the term comrade to refer to each other. Comrade can also be a way of describing someone who is an activist, although it has an association with the ANC and the struggle against apartheid or economic inequality.
In Zimbabwe, the term is only used to people who are affiliated to the ruling part, ZANU (PF) where the state media also use Cde as short for comrade. Members of the opposition mainly the MDC are oftenly referred by their names or Mr, Mrs or Prof. This is despite the fact that the population in general is not happy with it.
German usage
In modern Germany the term ''Genosse'' is usually preferred over ''Kamerad'' by those on the political left. This is due to the association of the term with militarism as well as its use by the NSDAP during the Third Reich. ''Kamerad'' continues to be used today by those on the German far-right. ''Kamerad'' is also used in non-political situations such as within the Bundeswehr, among firemen and in schools for classmates (''Klassenkamerad'').
In other languages
★ In Albanian, the word ''shok'' (from Latin ''socius'') was used within communist circles.
★ The Arabic word رفيق (''Rafiq'') (meaning ''friend'') is used with the same political connotation as "comrade." The term is used both amongst Arab communists as well as within the Ba’ath movement. The term predates modern political usage, and is an Islamic male proper name. Iranian communists also use the exact term.
★ The Armenian word for Comrade is ընկեր ("''unger''") for boys and men, ընկերուհի ("''ungerouhi''") for girls and women. This word literally translates as "friend". The term is known to be used by members of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation when addressing to other members of the party. The term is also used by the Armenian Communist Party.
★ The Bulgarian word for Comrade is "другар" (drugar). It translates as friend or colleague. It can be applied to teachers as well.
★ The Croatian term which is equivalent to Comrade is drug, drugar and drugarica for females. In the period between World War II and Tito's death, it was applied to almost everybody: teachers, officials, etc. Today it is not used commonly, but it translates as "friend".
★ The Czech word for Comrade is ''soudruh'', although the cognate ''kamarád'' is also seen. The latter translates as "friend".
★ The Dutch word is ''kameraad''. And although it can be used to refer to communists or an acquaintance, it is used in dialects to appoint someone's friend.
★ The Esperanto word for Comrade is "kamarado" in the sense of a friend. The word "samideano", literally "same-thinker" is the equivalent of "Comrade" in the Communist sense.
★ The Finnish word is ''Toveri'' which literally translates as "buddy".
★ The French word is "camarade". It is mainly used by communists but can apply for classmates and soldiers.
★ The Hungarian word for Comrade is ''elvtárs''. Literally, ''elvtárs'' means "policy fellow". The term is used only for Communists - Socialists don't use it.
★ The Icelandic word for Comrade is ''félagi''. It is used as a less intimate alternative to ''vinur'' (friend). It is also the word used for a "member" of club or association. When used as a title to precede a name (i.e. ''félagi Tító'' or ''félagi Dimitroff'') it has a communist implication.
★ The Italian word for Comrade is ''compagno'', meaning "fellow". It is seldom used in its political meaning, as it is seen as derogatory or stereotypical. The word ''camerata'', meaning "roommate", is the fascist equivalent.
★ The Japanese word for Comrade is "同志 (''dōshi'')", the same word used in Chinese. The word is used to refer to like-minded persons and the usage is not necessarily limited by Communists, though the word is to some extent associated with Communism. The word should not be confused with a homonym "同士", which is a more commonly used postfix to show people sharing a certain property.
★ In Korean, a good equivalent of the word would be "동무(''dongmu'')", literally meaning "friend". Although the word was originally used by the Korean people all over the Korean Peninsula, people living south of the 38th Parallel begin avoiding using the word after a communist regime was set up in the north. In North Korea, the word replaced all prior social titles and earned a new meaning as "a fellow man fighting for the revolution". Today, usage of the word "동무" in South Korea could attract suspicious eyes from the public, as it has been stereotyped that only communists would use the word.
★ In the Philippines, communist and left-leaning activists prefer the term ''kasama'' (roughly, companion), and the short form, ''ka'' before the name. As in labor leader, ''Ka'' Bel (Crispin Beltran).
★ In Poland, the word is ''towarzysz'', which is the same as the Russian word.
★ In Portugal and Brazil, the word is ''camarada'', now being commonly employed to sarcastically refer to communists or supporters of the communist system (result of the overusage of the term in the post-revolutionary society). It is also prevalent in the army, and has been gaining popularity among nationalist movements.
★ In Romanian the exact translation is ''camarad'' which does not bear a political connotation, referring mainly to wartime allies and friends. The term used during the communist era was ''tovarăş'', which is the same as the Russian word.
★ The Serbian word for Comrade is ''drug'' and is a regular word for 'friend'.
★ The Slovak word for Comrade is ''súdruh''. Slovak language also knows a term "kamarát" too, but it is normally translated as a friend.
★ In Slovenia comrade is similar to the Russian translation - ''Tovariš'', which incidentally can also mean "teacher".
★ In Spain, the word is ''compañero'' / ''compañera'' ("companion"); the term ''camarada'' ("companion", "friend") has also been used, but it's more associated with the communist tradition.
:The standard form in Cuba is ''compañero'' / ''compañera'', as it was in socialist Nicaragua and Chile. In some parts of Latin America, ''camarada'' is the more frequent word, except in Peru, where the term is commonly associated with ''Shining Path'', members of social-democrat party APRA employ ''compañero'' to refer to fellow members of the party.
★ In Swahili, the equivalent word is ''ndugu'' for brother-in-arms, or ''dada'' for a female comrade.
★ The Swedish word is ''kamrat''. Although it can be associated with communist lingo it may just as well be used to refer to a friend, a co-worker (''arbetskamrat'') or a classmate in school (''klasskamrat'' or ''skolkamrat'').
★ The Tamil word for Comrade is ''Thozhare'' (தோழரே) and is a regular word for 'friend'.
★ The Thai word ''sahai'' (สหาย) was used in the communist movement.
★ The Turkish word ''Yoldaş'' (literally co-traveller) has become used within the communist movement. In the climate of harsh anticommunist repression the word largely disappeared from common usage.
★ In the United Kingdom, the term "comrade" is still used as a form of address among some Labour Party members, although it is much less common than formerly. Used for headmasters. Wirral Grammar School for Boys
★ In the United States, the word "comrade" carries a very strong connotation of being associated with Communism, Marxism-Leninism, and the Soviet Union in general. Especially during the Cold War, to address someone as "comrade" marked either the speaker, person addressed, or both as suspected communist sympathizers. It is still used in its generic context by some American socialists, even strong anti-communists. It latterly is frequently used with humorous intent.
Animal Farm
In George Orwell's novel ''Animal Farm'', the animals all refer to each other as comrade, as the story is a satirical look at the Russian Revolution.
References
1. "1790, sens polit." - ''Larousse Dictionnaire d'Étymologie'', Paris, 2001.
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