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(Redirected from Conciliar movement)
In the history of Christianity, the 'Conciliar movement' or '"Conciliarism"' was a reform movement in the 14th and 15th century Roman Catholic Church which held that final authority in spiritual matters resided with the Roman Church as corporation of Christians, embodied by a general church council, not with the pope. The movement emerged in response to the Avignon papacy— the popes were removed from Rome and subjected to pressures from the kings of France— and the ensuing schism that inspired the summoning of the Council of Pisa (1409), the Council of Constance (1414-1418) and the Council of Basel (1431-1449). The eventual victor in the conflict was the institution of the Papacy, confirmed by the condemnation of 'conciliarism' at the Fifth Lateran Council, 1512-17. The final gesture however, the doctrine of Papal Infallibility, was not promulgated until the First Vatican Council of 1870.
The 13th and 14th centuries were a period of new challenges to Papal authority in Catholic Europe. These new challenges were marked by disputes between the Papacy and the secular kings of Europe. In particular the quarrel between Philip the Fair of France and Pope Boniface VIII over the right to tax the clergy in France was especially heated. Philip was excommunicated and Boniface was accused of corruption, sorcery, and sodomy. In his ''"Unam Sanctam"'', Boniface asserted that the papacy held power over both the spiritual and temporal worlds and that only God could judge the pope. Philip responded by sending knights to Italy to arrest Boniface where he died in captivity.
Conciliarist thought was largely sparked by the move of the Roman papacy to Avignon, France in 1305. Although the move had precedent, the Avignon Papacy's (1305-1377) image was damaged by accusations of corruption, favoritism toward the French, and even heresy. Indeed Pope Clement VI who was criticized for his apparent extravagant lifestyle asserted that his "predecessors did not know how to be Pope." During the span of the Avignon Papacy all the popes were French as with 80% of the cardinals and 70% of the lower officers. The reputation of the Avignon Papacy led many to question the absolute authority of the pope in governing the universal Catholic Church.
The Great Schism (1378-1413), also known as the Western Schism, which was a dispute between the legal elections of Pope Urban VI in Rome and Pope Clement VII in Avignon. The schism became highly politicized as the kings of Europe chose to support whichever pope served their best interests. Both popes chose successors and thus the schism continued even after Urban and Clement's deaths. In this crisis, conciliarism took center stage as the best option for deciding which pope would step down. The cardinals decided to convene the Council of Pisa (1409) to decide who would be the one pope of the Catholic Church. The council was a failure and even led to the election of a third pope, John XXIII. The Council of Constance (1414-1418) successfully solved the Schism by deposing both John XXIII and the Avignon Pope Benedict XIII. It also decreed to maintain the council as the primary church body from then on. The Council of Basel (1431-1449) attempted to solidify conciliarism in the Catholic Church, but failed to take a lasting effect on the Church.
The conciliar gains that were accepted at Constance and Basel were short lived. At the convening of the Fifth Lateran Council (1512-1517), Pope Julius II reasserted the supremacy of papal authority over the council. Populated by cardinals opposed to conciliarism, the council condemned the practices and authority of the council. In fact, the council was an essential copy of the pre-Conciliar councils such as Lateran IV (1205), Lyon (1274), and Vienna (1311).
William of Ockham (d. 1349) wrote some of the earliest documents outlining the basic understanding of conciliarism. Some of his arguments included that the election, or their representatives, by the faithful confer the position of pope and further limits the papal authority. The universal church is a congregation of the faithful, not the Roman Church, which promised to the Apostles by Jesus. While the universal Church cannot fall into heresy, it is known that the Pope has fallen into heresy in the past. Should the pope fall into heresy a council can be convened without his permission to judge him. William even stated that because it is a "universal" church, that the councils should include the participation of lay men and even women.
In his ''Defensor Pacis (1324)'', Marsilius of Padua agreed with William of Ockham that the universal Church is a church of the faithful, not the priests. Marsilius focused on the idea that the inequality of the priesthood has no divine basis and that Jesus, not the pope, is the only head of the Catholic Church. Contradicting the idea of Papal infallibility, Marsilius claimed that only the universal church is infallible, not the pope.
Conciliar theory has its roots and foundations in both history and theology. The precedent had been set by such important councils as the First Council of Nicaea (325) that had incredible importance to the foundation of the Catholic Church. Indeed, many of the most important decisions of the Catholic Church have been made through conciliar means. The basis for conciliarism can be rooted in the Apostles that acted as the first council that decided on the future of the Christian Church.
Conciliar theory was also largely influenced by the Christian Humanist movement of the 14th and 15th centuries. Christian Humanists combined secular humanist teachings with the Christian tradition to devise new interpretations on life and religion. William of Ockham, Marsilius of Padua, and Nicholas of Cusa are examples of Christian humanists in this period. Their beliefs included: focus on education especially in respects of ethics and logic, examining the classics such as Plato and Aristotle, focus on the connection between the Church and the laity, and renewed ideas on scripture. In many cases Christian humanists were largely anti-clerical and believed that anyone can teach and learn from the message of the Christian Bible. Christian humanists often referred back to the origins of the ancient Christian church as the most correct form of Christian organization.
Many members of the Church however, continued to believe that the pope, as the successor of Peter, retains the sole authority to the Church. Tommaso De Vio vigorously defended Papal authority in his "''On the comparison of the authority of pope and council''". He wrote that "Peter alone had the vicariate of Jesus Christ and only he received the power of jurisdiction immediately from Christ in an ordinary way, so that the others (the Apostles) were to receive it from him in the ordinary course of the law and were subject to him." and that "it must be demonstrated that Christ gave the plenitude of ecclesiastical power not to the community of the Church but to a single person in it." Tommaso De Vio represents the many cardinals and theologians that opposed the conciliar movement based on Peter's successors.
Although Conciliarist strains of thought remain within the Church, particularly the American Church, Rome and the teaching of the Roman Church maintains that the Pope is the Vicar of Christ on earth, and has the authority to issue infallible statements. This Papal Infallibility has only been invoked twice (Pius IX's solemn declaration of Mary's Immaculate Conception in 1854 and Pius XII's solemn declaration of Mary's Assumption in 1950). The teaching of the Second Vatican Council on the College of Bishops contained within the decree Lumen Gentium has sometimes been interpreted as conciliarism, or a least conducive to it, by liberal and conservative Catholics alike. However, the text of the document as well as an explanatory note (Nota Praevia) by Paul VI makes the distinction clear. There are Christians, especially of the Anglo-Catholic and Eastern Orthodox communions, who maintain the absolute supremacy of an ecumenical council. See conciliarity. However, this belief, from the Orthodox view, has no historical connection with the above events in the history of the Western Church.
1. Burns, J.H. and Thomas M. Izbicki. ''Conciliarism and Papalism''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997
2. Nicholas of Cusa. "The Catholic Concordance". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3. Oakley, Francis. "Conciliarism at the Fifth Lateran Council?". ''Church History'', Vol. 41, No. 4 (Dec., 1972)
4. Oakley, Francis. ''Council over Pope?''. New York: Herder and Herder, 1969.
5. Oakley, Francis. ''The Conciliarist Tradition''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
In the history of Christianity, the 'Conciliar movement' or '"Conciliarism"' was a reform movement in the 14th and 15th century Roman Catholic Church which held that final authority in spiritual matters resided with the Roman Church as corporation of Christians, embodied by a general church council, not with the pope. The movement emerged in response to the Avignon papacy— the popes were removed from Rome and subjected to pressures from the kings of France— and the ensuing schism that inspired the summoning of the Council of Pisa (1409), the Council of Constance (1414-1418) and the Council of Basel (1431-1449). The eventual victor in the conflict was the institution of the Papacy, confirmed by the condemnation of 'conciliarism' at the Fifth Lateran Council, 1512-17. The final gesture however, the doctrine of Papal Infallibility, was not promulgated until the First Vatican Council of 1870.
| Contents |
| Background |
| Conciliar Theory |
| Opposition to Conciliarism |
| Modern Conciliarism |
| Sources |
Background
The 13th and 14th centuries were a period of new challenges to Papal authority in Catholic Europe. These new challenges were marked by disputes between the Papacy and the secular kings of Europe. In particular the quarrel between Philip the Fair of France and Pope Boniface VIII over the right to tax the clergy in France was especially heated. Philip was excommunicated and Boniface was accused of corruption, sorcery, and sodomy. In his ''"Unam Sanctam"'', Boniface asserted that the papacy held power over both the spiritual and temporal worlds and that only God could judge the pope. Philip responded by sending knights to Italy to arrest Boniface where he died in captivity.
Conciliarist thought was largely sparked by the move of the Roman papacy to Avignon, France in 1305. Although the move had precedent, the Avignon Papacy's (1305-1377) image was damaged by accusations of corruption, favoritism toward the French, and even heresy. Indeed Pope Clement VI who was criticized for his apparent extravagant lifestyle asserted that his "predecessors did not know how to be Pope." During the span of the Avignon Papacy all the popes were French as with 80% of the cardinals and 70% of the lower officers. The reputation of the Avignon Papacy led many to question the absolute authority of the pope in governing the universal Catholic Church.
The Great Schism (1378-1413), also known as the Western Schism, which was a dispute between the legal elections of Pope Urban VI in Rome and Pope Clement VII in Avignon. The schism became highly politicized as the kings of Europe chose to support whichever pope served their best interests. Both popes chose successors and thus the schism continued even after Urban and Clement's deaths. In this crisis, conciliarism took center stage as the best option for deciding which pope would step down. The cardinals decided to convene the Council of Pisa (1409) to decide who would be the one pope of the Catholic Church. The council was a failure and even led to the election of a third pope, John XXIII. The Council of Constance (1414-1418) successfully solved the Schism by deposing both John XXIII and the Avignon Pope Benedict XIII. It also decreed to maintain the council as the primary church body from then on. The Council of Basel (1431-1449) attempted to solidify conciliarism in the Catholic Church, but failed to take a lasting effect on the Church.
The conciliar gains that were accepted at Constance and Basel were short lived. At the convening of the Fifth Lateran Council (1512-1517), Pope Julius II reasserted the supremacy of papal authority over the council. Populated by cardinals opposed to conciliarism, the council condemned the practices and authority of the council. In fact, the council was an essential copy of the pre-Conciliar councils such as Lateran IV (1205), Lyon (1274), and Vienna (1311).
Conciliar Theory
William of Ockham (d. 1349) wrote some of the earliest documents outlining the basic understanding of conciliarism. Some of his arguments included that the election, or their representatives, by the faithful confer the position of pope and further limits the papal authority. The universal church is a congregation of the faithful, not the Roman Church, which promised to the Apostles by Jesus. While the universal Church cannot fall into heresy, it is known that the Pope has fallen into heresy in the past. Should the pope fall into heresy a council can be convened without his permission to judge him. William even stated that because it is a "universal" church, that the councils should include the participation of lay men and even women.
In his ''Defensor Pacis (1324)'', Marsilius of Padua agreed with William of Ockham that the universal Church is a church of the faithful, not the priests. Marsilius focused on the idea that the inequality of the priesthood has no divine basis and that Jesus, not the pope, is the only head of the Catholic Church. Contradicting the idea of Papal infallibility, Marsilius claimed that only the universal church is infallible, not the pope.
Conciliar theory has its roots and foundations in both history and theology. The precedent had been set by such important councils as the First Council of Nicaea (325) that had incredible importance to the foundation of the Catholic Church. Indeed, many of the most important decisions of the Catholic Church have been made through conciliar means. The basis for conciliarism can be rooted in the Apostles that acted as the first council that decided on the future of the Christian Church.
Conciliar theory was also largely influenced by the Christian Humanist movement of the 14th and 15th centuries. Christian Humanists combined secular humanist teachings with the Christian tradition to devise new interpretations on life and religion. William of Ockham, Marsilius of Padua, and Nicholas of Cusa are examples of Christian humanists in this period. Their beliefs included: focus on education especially in respects of ethics and logic, examining the classics such as Plato and Aristotle, focus on the connection between the Church and the laity, and renewed ideas on scripture. In many cases Christian humanists were largely anti-clerical and believed that anyone can teach and learn from the message of the Christian Bible. Christian humanists often referred back to the origins of the ancient Christian church as the most correct form of Christian organization.
Opposition to Conciliarism
Many members of the Church however, continued to believe that the pope, as the successor of Peter, retains the sole authority to the Church. Tommaso De Vio vigorously defended Papal authority in his "''On the comparison of the authority of pope and council''". He wrote that "Peter alone had the vicariate of Jesus Christ and only he received the power of jurisdiction immediately from Christ in an ordinary way, so that the others (the Apostles) were to receive it from him in the ordinary course of the law and were subject to him." and that "it must be demonstrated that Christ gave the plenitude of ecclesiastical power not to the community of the Church but to a single person in it." Tommaso De Vio represents the many cardinals and theologians that opposed the conciliar movement based on Peter's successors.
Modern Conciliarism
Although Conciliarist strains of thought remain within the Church, particularly the American Church, Rome and the teaching of the Roman Church maintains that the Pope is the Vicar of Christ on earth, and has the authority to issue infallible statements. This Papal Infallibility has only been invoked twice (Pius IX's solemn declaration of Mary's Immaculate Conception in 1854 and Pius XII's solemn declaration of Mary's Assumption in 1950). The teaching of the Second Vatican Council on the College of Bishops contained within the decree Lumen Gentium has sometimes been interpreted as conciliarism, or a least conducive to it, by liberal and conservative Catholics alike. However, the text of the document as well as an explanatory note (Nota Praevia) by Paul VI makes the distinction clear. There are Christians, especially of the Anglo-Catholic and Eastern Orthodox communions, who maintain the absolute supremacy of an ecumenical council. See conciliarity. However, this belief, from the Orthodox view, has no historical connection with the above events in the history of the Western Church.
Sources
1. Burns, J.H. and Thomas M. Izbicki. ''Conciliarism and Papalism''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997
2. Nicholas of Cusa. "The Catholic Concordance". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3. Oakley, Francis. "Conciliarism at the Fifth Lateran Council?". ''Church History'', Vol. 41, No. 4 (Dec., 1972)
4. Oakley, Francis. ''Council over Pope?''. New York: Herder and Herder, 1969.
5. Oakley, Francis. ''The Conciliarist Tradition''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
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