CONSTRUCTED LANGUAGE

A 'constructed' or 'artificial language' — known colloquially as a 'conlang' — is a language whose phonology, grammar, and/or vocabulary have been devised by an individual or group, instead of having naturally evolved as part of a culture. There are many possible reasons to create a constructed language: to ease human communication (see international auxiliary language and code); to bring fiction or an associated constructed world to life; linguistic experimentation; celebration of one's aesthetic tastes in language; and language games.
The synonym '''planned language''' is sometimes used to refer to international auxiliary languages, and by those who may disagree with the more common term "artificial". For example, few speakers of the auxiliary language Interlingua consider it artificial, since it has no invented content, unlike Esperanto and to some extent Ido. Some speakers of Esperanto and Ido also avoid the term "artificial language" because they deny that there is something "unnatural" about the use of their language in human communication.
Calling languages "planned" also helps to resolve a difficulty with the term "constructed language": it is often used loosely to include a few auxiliary languages that are not seen as constructed. Interlingua, for example, has a naturally occurring vocabulary and grammar that have been catalogued and standardized by a linguistic research body. While standardization might be considered planning of a sort, it is difficult to characterize as constructed a language whose content has developed naturally.
Similarly, Latino sine Flexione (LsF) is a simplification of Latin from which the flexions (inflections) have been removed. As with Interlingua, it is difficult to explain how LsF might be viewed as constructed. Both LsF and Interlingua are considered major auxiliary languages, although only Interlingua is widely spoken today.
Outside the Esperanto community, the term language planning refers to prescriptive measures taken regarding a natural language. In this regard, even "natural languages" may be artificial in some respects. In the case of prescriptive grammars, where wholly artificial rules exist, the line is difficult to draw. For example, the rule in the English language that prohibits a split infinitive is artificial. "Glossopoeia," coined by J. R. R. Tolkien, is also used to refer to language construction.

Overview

Constructed languages are often divided into '''a priori'' languages', in which much of the grammar and vocabulary is created from scratch (using the author's imagination or automatic computational means), and '''a posteriori'' languages', where the grammar and vocabulary are derived from one or more natural languages.
In turn, a posteriori languages are divided into 'schematic' languages, in which a natural or partly natural vocabulary is altered to fit pre-established rules, and 'naturalistic' languages, in which a natural vocabulary retains its normal sound and appearance. While Esperanto is generally considered schematic, Interlingua is viewed as naturalistic. Ido is presented variously as a schematic language or as a compromise between the two types.
Fictional and experimental languages can also be naturalistic in the sense that they are meant to sound natural and, if derived ''a posteriori'', they try to follow natural rules of phonological, lexical and grammatical change. In contrast with Interlingua, these languages are not usually intended for easy learning or communication. Thus, a naturalistic fictional language tends to be more difficult and complex, not less. While Interlingua has a simple grammar, syntax, and orthography, some naturalistic fictional languages try to mimic such behaviours of natural languages as irregular verbs and nouns, complicated phonological rules, and the like.
In terms of purpose, most constructed languages can broadly be divided as:

★ 'Engineered languages' (''engelangs'' ), further subdivided into 'philosophical languages', 'logical languages' (''loglangs'') and 'experimental languages'; devised for the purpose of experimentation in logic, philosophy or linguistics

★ 'Auxiliary languages' (''auxlangs'') — devised for international communication (also IALs, for International Auxiliary Language)

★ 'Artistic languages' (''artlangs'') — devised to create aesthetic pleasure or humorous effect
But the boundaries between these categories are by no means clear, and a language devised for more than one purpose could easily fall into more than one, or even all, of the above categories. A logical language created for aesthetic reasons would also be classifiable as an artistic language, which might be created by someone with philosophical motives intending for said conlang to be used as an auxiliary language. There are no rules, either inherent in the process of language construction or externally imposed, that would limit a constructed language to fitting only one of the above categories.
A constructed language can have native speakers if children learn it at an early age from parents who have learned the language. Esperanto is said to have a considerable number of native speakers, variously placed between 200 and 2000 by advocates of the language as a communication medium. Interlingua and Ido have native speakers as well, although their numbers are currently unknown. A member of the Klingon Language Institute, d'Armond Speers, attempted to raise his son as a native (bilingual with English) Klingon speaker.^[1] Evan Robertson, the creator of Mosro [1], successfully taught the language to his four youngest children.
But as soon as a constructed language has a number of native speakers, it begins to evolve, and so loses its constructed status over time. For example Modern Hebrew was modeled on Biblical Hebrew rather than engineered from scratch, and has undergone considerable changes since the state of Israel was founded in 1948 (Hetzron 1990:693).
Proponents of particular constructed languages often have many reasons for using them. Among these, the famous but disputed Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is sometimes cited; this claims that the language one speaks influences the way in which one thinks. Thus, a "better" language should allow the speaker to reach some elevated level of intelligence, or to encompass more diverse points of view. A constructed language could also by this hypothesis be used to 'restrict' thought, as in George Orwell's Newspeak, or to 'simplify' thought, as in Toki Pona[2]. In contrast, some linguists such as Stephen Pinker argue that ideas exist in the mind in a language-independent format, such that children spontaneously re-invent slang and even grammar with each generation. (See The Language Instinct.) If this argument is true, an attempt to control the range of human thought through language is doomed to failure, as concepts like "freedom" will reappear in new words if the old ones vanish.
The ISO 639-2 standard reserves the language code "" to denote artificial languages. However, some constructed languages have their own ISO 639 language codes (e.g. "eo" and "epo" for Esperanto, or "ia" and "ina" for Interlingua and "qny" for Quenya).
In the CONLANG Mailing List, a community of conlangers has developed, which has its own customs, such as translation relays (Higley 2000).

History

Grammatical speculation is documented from Classical Antiquity, with Plato's ''Cratylus''. However the suggested mechanisms of grammar were designed to explain existing languages (Latin, Greek, Sanskrit), rather than constructing new grammars. Roughly contemporary to Plato, in his descriptive grammar of Sanskrit, Pāṇini constructed a set of rules for explaining language, so that the text of his grammar may be considered a mixture of natural and constructed language.
The earliest non-natural languages were not so much considered "constructed" as "super-natural" or mystical. The Lingua Ignota, recorded in the 12th century by St. Hildegard of Bingen is an example of this; apparently it is a form of private mystical cant (see also language of angels). Kabbalistic grammatical speculation was directed at recovering the original language spoken by Adam and Eve in Paradise, lost in the confusion of tongues. The first Christian project for an ideal language is outlined in Dante Alighieri's ''De vulgari eloquentia'', where he searches for the ideal Italian vernacular suited for literature. Ramon Llull's ''Ars magna'' was a project of a perfect language with which the infidels could be convinced of the truth of the Christian faith. It was basically an application of combinatorics on a given set of concepts. During the Renaissance, Lullian and Kabbalistic ideas were carried ''ad absurdum'' in a magical context, resulting in cryptographic applications. The Voynich manuscript may be an example of this.
Renaissance interest in Ancient Egypt, notably the discovery of the ''Hieroglyphica'' of Horapollo, and first encounters with the Chinese script directed efforts towards a perfect language of written characters. Johannes Trithemius, in his works ''Steganographia'' and ''Polygraphia'', attempted to show how all languages can be reduced to one. In the 17th century, interest in magical languages was continued by the Rosicrucians and Alchemists (like John Dee). Jakob Boehme in 1623 spoke of a "natural language" (''Natursprache'') of the senses.
Musical languages from the Renaissance were tied up with mysticism, magic and alchemy, sometimes also referred to as the language of the birds. The Solresol project of 1817 re-invented the concept in a more pragmatic context.
The 17th century also saw the rise of projects for "philosophical" or "a priori" languages. It was pioneered by Francis Lodwick's ''A Common Writing'' (1647) and ''The Groundwork or Foundation laid (or So Intended) for the Framing of a New Perfect Language and a Universal Common Writing'' (1652), Sir Thomas Urquhart (''Logopandecteision'', 1652) George Dalgarno (''Ars signorum'', 1661) and John Wilkins (''Essay towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language'', 1668) producing systems of hierarchical classification that were intended to result in both spoken and written expression. Gottfried Leibniz with ''lingua generalis'' in 1678 pursued a similar end, aiming at a lexicon of characters upon which the user might perform calculations that would yield true propositions automatically, as a side-effect developing binary calculus. These projects were not only occupied with reducing or modelling grammar, but also with the arrangement of all human knowledge into "characters" or hierarchies, an idea that with the Enlightenment would ultimately lead to the ''Encyclopédie''.
Leibniz and the encyclopedists realized that it is impossible to organize human knowledge unequivocally in a tree diagram, and consequently to construct an ''a priori'' language based on such a classification of concepts. Under the entry ''Charactère'', D'Alembert critically reviewed the projects of philosophical languages of the preceding century. After the ''Encyclopédie'', projects for ''a priori'' languages moved more and more to the lunatic fringe. Individual authors, typically unaware of the history of the idea, continued to propose taxonomic philosophical languages until the early 20th century (e.g. Ro), but most recent engineered languages have had more modest goals; some are limited to a specific field, like mathematical formalism or calculus (e.g. Lincos and programming languages), others are designed for eliminating syntactical ambiguity (e.g., Loglan and Lojban) or maximizing conciseness (e.g., Ithkuil, Ygyde).
Already in the ''Encyclopédie'' attention began to focus on ''a posteriori'' auxiliary languages. Joachim Faiguet in the article on ''Langue'' already wrote a short proposition of a "laconic" or regularized grammar of French. During the 19th century, a bewildering variety of such International Auxiliary Languages (IALs) were proposed, so that Louis Couturat and Leopold Leau in ''Histoire de la langue universelle'' (1903) reviewed 38 projects.
The first of these that made any international impact was Volapük, proposed in 1879 by Johann Martin Schleyer; within a decade, 283 Volapükist clubs were counted all over the globe. However, this language by its very success lost its unity, and within a few years, fell into obscurity, making way for Esperanto, proposed in 1887 by Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof, the most successful IAL to date. Ido, made public in 1907, was a reform of Esperanto. Finally, Interlingua emerged in 1951, when the International Auxiliary Language Association published its Interlingua-English Dictionary and an accompanying .
Loglan (1955) and its descendants constitute a pragmatic return to the aims of the ''a priori'' languages, tempered by the requirement of usability of an auxiliary language. Thus far, these modern a priori languages have garnered only small groups of speakers.
Artistic languages, constructed for literary enjoyment or aesthetic reasons without any claim of usefulness, begin to appear in Early Modern literature (in Pantagruel, and in Utopian contexts), but they only seem to gain notability as serious projects from the 20th century. ''A Princess of Mars'' by Edgar Rice Burroughs was possibly the first fiction of the 20th century to feature a constructed language. Tolkien was the first to develop a family of related fictional languages and was the first academic to publicly discuss artistic languages, admitting to ''A Secret Vice'' of his in 1930 at an Esperanto congress. (Orwell's Newspeak should be considered a parody of an IAL rather than an artistic language proper.)
By the turn of the 21st century, it had become common for science-fiction and fantasy works set in other worlds to feature constructed languages, or more commonly, an extremely limited but defined vocabulary which ''suggests'' the existence of a complete language, and constructed languages are a regular part of the genre, including ''Star Wars'', ''Star Trek'', ''Stargate SG-1'', '', or the Myst series of computer adventure games. The most famous of these examples is the Klingon language from Star Trek, which has a bone-fide vocabulary and a full set of functional grammar rules.

Collaborative constructed languages

While most constructed languages have been created by a single person, a few are the results of group collaborations; examples are Interlingua, which was developed by the International Auxiliary Language Association, and Lojban, which was developed by a breakaway group of Loglanists.
Group collaboration has apparently become more common in recent years, as constructed language designers have started using Internet tools to coordinate design efforts. NGL/Tokcir [3] was an early Internet collaborative engineered language whose designers used a mailing list to discuss and vote on grammatical and lexical design issues. More recently, The Demos IAL Project is developing an international auxiliary language with similar collaborative methods.
Several artistic languages were developed on different constructed language wikis, usually involving discussion and voting on phonology, grammatical rules and so forth. An interesting variation is the corpus approach, exemplified by Madjal and more recently Kalusa, where contributors simply read the corpus of existing sentences and add their own sentences, perhaps reinforcing existing trends or adding new words and structures. The Kalusa engine adds the ability for visitors to rate sentences as acceptable or unacceptable. There is no explicit statement of grammatical rules or explicit definition of words in this corpus approach; the meaning of words is inferred from their use in various sentences of the corpus, perhaps in different ways by different readers and contributors, and the grammatical rules can be inferred from the structures of the sentences that have been rated highest by the contributors and other visitors.

References

★ Eco, Umberto (1995). ''The search for the perfect language''. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0631174656

★ Hetrzon, Robert (1990). "Hebrew". In Bernard Comrie (ed.), ''The World's Major Languages''. New York: Oxford UP. ISBN 0-19-506511-5

★ Libert, Alan (2000). ''A Priori Artificial Languages''. Munich: Lincom Europa. ISBN 3-89586-667-9
1. Gavin Edwards: ''Babble On Revisited'', Wired Magazine, Issue 7.08, August 1999

External links

;Scholarship

★ Audience, Uglossia, and CONLANG: Inventing Languages on the Internet by Sarah L. Higley. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 3.1 (2000).

★ Language Arts Outpost preserves several articles from the paper zine ''Journal of Planned Languages''

★ The Language Lab, Rick Harrison's site, also reprints several such articles on specific languages

★ Language Creation Conference [4] — LCC2 registration
;Communities

★ The CONLANG Mailing List — Whence the term "conlang".

★ LiveJournal Conlangs community

★ Zompist Bulletin Board — a highly active online forum devoted to conlangs (and conworlds in general)

★ Conlanger Bulletin Board — A multilingual forum primarily for conlangers

★ [irc://irc.efnet.net/ConLang #ConLang] — The IRC channel #ConLang on EFNet
;How to

★ The Language Construction Kit

★ How to Create a Language / Cómo crear un lenguaje: inspired by the Language Construction Kit; covers some overlooked topics.

★ How to Create a Language similar to the above

★ Langmaker: ConLangs and neologisms forum

★ Lingua Questionnaire: questions to aid in the writing of natural or constructed language grammars.
;Directories

★ Conlang Profiles at Langmaker.com — over 1,000 languages listed, frequently updated

★ A Constructed Languages Library

★ The Conlang Yellow Pages

★ Blueprints For Babel

★ Garrett's Links to Logical Languages

★ Department of Planned Languages and Esperanto Museum of the Austrian National Library
;Wikis

★ Conlang Wikia — "Conlang Free City"

★ ConlangWiki — a wiki devoted to the topics of ConLangs and ConCultures.

★ FrathWiki

★ KneeQuickie — wiki for conlanging, linguistics, and the ZBB community.

★ IAL Wiki — a wiki for the Auxlang community

★ Unilang.org — a database of language- and linguistic-related information

★ Sigsumeidsi — The Sigsumeidsi Constructed Language (under GFDL).

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CONSTRUCTED LANGUAGE

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