(Redirected from Crusade)
The 'Crusades' were a series of military conflicts of a
religious character waged by
Christians during
1095–
1291, most of which were sanctioned by the
Pope in the name of
Christendom.
[1] The Crusades originally had the goal of recapturing
Jerusalem and the
sacred "
Holy Land" from
Muslim rule and were originally launched in response to a call from the
Eastern Orthodox Byzantine Empire for help against the expansion of the Muslim
Seljuq dynasty into
Anatolia.
The term is also used to describe contemporaneous and subsequent campaigns conducted through to the 16th century in territories outside
the Levant[2], usually against
pagans, those considered by the
Catholic Church to be
heretics, and peoples under the ban of
excommunication for a mixture of religious, economic, and political reasons.
[3] Rivalries among both Christian and Muslim powers led also to alliances between religious factions against their opponents, such as the Christian alliance with the
Sultanate of Rum during the
Fifth Crusade.
The traditional numbering scheme for the Crusades includes the nine major expeditions to the Holy Land during the 11th to 13th centuries. Other unnumbered "crusades" continued into the 16th century, lasting until the political and religious climate of Europe was significantly changed during the
Renaissance and
Reformation.
The Crusades had far-reaching political, economic, and social impacts, some of which have lasted into contemporary times. Because of internal conflicts among Christian kingdoms and political powers, some of the crusade expeditions (such as the
Fourth Crusade) were diverted from their original aim and resulted in the sack of a Christian city,
Constantinople, and the partition of the Byzantine Empire between
Venice and the Crusaders. The
Sixth Crusade was the first crusade to set sail without the official blessing of the Church, establishing the precedent that rulers other than the Pope could initiate a crusade.
Historical context
Jerusalem falls to the Sassanids
The Byzantines lost control of Jerusalem and the
True Cross in
614 to
Khosrau II, ruler of the
Zoroastrian Persian Empire. The Byzantine emperor
Heraclius imbued the subsequent struggle between the Empires with religious overtones, aiming to recapture both Jerusalem and the True Cross (he was successful on both counts). The Byzantines called themselves "soldiers of the cross".
Middle Eastern situation
The Muslim presence in the Holy Land began with the initial
Arab conquest of
Palestine in the 7th century. This did not interfere much with
pilgrimage to Christian holy sites or the security of monasteries and Christian communities in the Holy Land, and western Europeans were less concerned with the loss of far-away Jerusalem than, in the ensuing decades and centuries, the invasions by Muslims and other hostile non-Christians, such as the
Vikings, heathen
Slavs and
Magyars. However, the Muslim armies' successes put increasing pressure on the
Eastern Orthodox Byzantine Empire.
Another factor that contributed to the change in Western attitudes towards the East came in the year 1009, when the
Fatimid Caliph
al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ordered the
Church of the Holy Sepulchre destroyed. In 1039 his successor permitted the Byzantine Empire to rebuild it.
[4] Pilgrimages were allowed to the Holy Lands before and after the Sepulchre was rebuilt, but for a time pilgrims were captured and some of the clergy were killed. The Muslim conquerors eventually realized that the wealth of Jerusalem came from the pilgrims; with this realization the persecution of pilgrims stopped.
[5] However, the damage was already done, and the violence of the Seljuk Turks became part of the concern that spread the passion for the Crusades.
[6]
Western European situation
The origins of the Crusades lie in developments in
Western Europe earlier in the
Middle Ages, as well as the deteriorating situation of the
Byzantine Empire in the east caused by a new wave of Turkish Muslim attacks. The breakdown of the
Carolingian Empire in the late 9th century, combined with the relative stabilisation of local European borders after the Christianization of the
Vikings,
Slavs, and
Magyars, had produced a large class of armed warriors whose energies were misplaced fighting one another and terrorizing the local populace. The Church tried to stem this violence with the
Peace and Truce of God movements, which was somewhat successful, but trained warriors always sought an outlet for their violence, and opportunities for territorial expansion were becoming less attractive for large segments of the nobility. One exception was the ''
Reconquista'' in
Spain and
Portugal, which at times occupied Iberian
knights and some
mercenaries from elsewhere in Europe in the fight against the Islamic
Moors, who had successfully overrun most of the
Iberian Peninsula over the preceding two centuries.
In 1063,
Pope Alexander II had given his blessing to Iberian Christians in their wars against the Muslims, granting both a papal standard (the ''vexillum sancti Petri'') and an
indulgence to those who were killed in battle. Pleas from the Byzantine Emperors, now threatened by the
Seljuks, thus fell on ready ears. These occurred in 1074, from Emperor
Michael VII to
Pope Gregory VII and in 1095, from Emperor
Alexius I Comnenus to
Pope Urban II.
Map of the Iberian Peninsula at the time of the Almoravid arrival in the 11th Century- Christian Kingdoms included 'A'ragón, 'C'astile, 'L'eon, 'N'avarre, and 'P'ortugal
The Crusades were, in part, an outlet for an intense religious piety which rose up in the late 11th century among the lay public. A crusader would, after pronouncing a solemn vow, receive a cross from the hands of the pope or his
legates, and was thenceforth considered a "soldier of the Church". This was partly because of the
Investiture Controversy, which had started around 1075 and was still on-going during the First Crusade. As both sides of the Investiture Controversy tried to marshal public opinion in their favor, people became personally engaged in a dramatic religious controversy. The result was an awakening of intense Christian piety and public interest in religious affairs. This was further strengthened by religious propaganda, advocating
Just War in order to retake the Holy Land—which included Jerusalem (where the
death,
resurrection and
ascension into
heaven of
Jesus took place according to Christian theology) and
Antioch (the first Christian city)—from the Muslims. Further, the remission of sin was a driving factor. This provided any God-fearing men who had committed sins with an irresistible way out of eternal damnation in hell. It was a hotly debated issue throughout the Crusades as what exactly "remission of sin" meant. Most believed that by retaking Jerusalem they would go straight to heaven after death. However, much controversy surrounds exactly what was promised by the popes of the time. One theory was that one had to die fighting for Jerusalem for the remission to apply, which would hew more closely to what Pope Urban II said in his speeches. This meant that if the crusaders were successful, and retook Jerusalem, the survivors would not be given remission. Another theory was that if one reached Jerusalem, one would be relieved of the sins one had committed before the Crusade. Therefore one could still be sentenced to hell for sins committed afterwards.
All of these factors were manifested in the overwhelming popular support for the First Crusade and the religious vitality of the 12th century.
Immediate cause
The immediate cause of the First Crusade was
Alexius I's appeal to
Pope Urban II for mercenaries to help him resist Muslim advances into territory of the Byzantine Empire. In
1071, at the
Battle of Manzikert, the Byzantine Empire was defeated, which led to the loss of all of Asia Minor (modern
Turkey) save the coastlands. Although attempts at reconciliation after the
East-West Schism between the Catholic Western Church and the
Eastern Orthodox Church had failed, Alexius I hoped for a positive response from Urban II and got it, although it turned out to be more expansive and less helpful than he had expected.
When the First Crusade was preached in 1095, the Christian princes of northern Iberia had been fighting their way out of the mountains of
Galicia and
Asturias, the
Basque Country and
Navarre, with increasing success, for about a hundred years. The fall of Moorish
Toledo to the
Kingdom of León in 1085 was a major victory, but the turning points of the ''
Reconquista'' still lay in the future. The disunity of Muslim emirs was an essential factor.
While the ''
Reconquista'' was the most prominent example of Christian reaction against Muslim conquests, it is not the only such example. The
Norman adventurer
Robert Guiscard had conquered the "toe of Italy," Calabria, in 1057 and was holding what had traditionally been Byzantine territory against the Muslims of
Sicily. The maritime states of
Pisa,
Genoa and
Catalonia were all actively fighting Islamic strongholds in
Majorca and
Sardinia, freeing the coasts of Italy and Catalonia from Muslim raids. Much earlier, the Christian homelands of
Syria,
Lebanon, Palestine,
Egypt, and so on had been conquered by Muslim armies. This long history of losing territories to a religious enemy created a powerful motive to respond to Byzantine Emperor Alexius I's call for holy war to defend Christendom, and to recapture the lost lands starting with Jerusalem.
The papacy of
Pope Gregory VII had struggled with reservations about the doctrinal validity of a holy war and the shedding of blood for the Lord and had, with difficulty, resolved the question in favour of justified violence. More importantly to the Pope, the Christians who made pilgrimages to the Holy Land were being persecuted. Actions against
Arians and other heretics offered historical precedents in a society where violence against nonbelievers—and indeed against other Christians—was acceptable and common. Saint
Augustine of Hippo, Gregory's intellectual model, had justified the use of force in the service of Christ in ''
The City of God'', and a Christian "
just war" might enhance the wider standing of an aggressively ambitious leader of Europe, as Gregory saw himself. The northerners would be cemented to
Rome, and their troublesome knights could see the only kind of action that suited them. Previous attempts by the church to stem such violence, such as the concept of the "Peace of God", were not as successful as hoped. To the south of Rome, Normans were showing how such energies might be unleashed against both Arabs (in Sicily) and Byzantines (on the mainland). A Latin hegemony in the
Levant would provide leverage in resolving the Papacy's claims of supremacy over the
Patriarch of Constantinople, which had resulted in the
Great Schism of 1054, a rift that might yet be resolved through the force of Frankish arms.
In the Byzantine homelands, the Eastern Emperor's weakness was revealed by the disastrous defeat at the
Battle of Manzikert in 1071, which reduced the Empire's Asian territory to a region in western Anatolia and around Constantinople. A sure sign of Byzantine desperation was the appeal of Alexius I Comnenus to his enemy, the Pope, for aid. But Gregory was occupied with the
Investiture Controversy and could not call on the German emperor, so a crusade never took shape.
For Gregory's more moderate successor, Pope Urban II, a crusade would serve to reunite Christendom, bolster the Papacy, and perhaps bring the East under his control. The disaffected Germans and the Normans were not to be counted on, but the heart and backbone of a crusade could be found in Urban's own homeland among the northern French.
After the First Crusade
On a popular level, the first crusades unleashed a wave of impassioned, personally felt pious Christian fury that was expressed in the massacres of
Jews that accompanied the movement of the Crusader mobs through Europe, as well as the violent treatment of "
schismatic" Orthodox Christians of the east. During many of the attacks on Jews, local Bishops and Christians made attempts to protect Jews from the mobs that were passing through. Jews were often offered sanctuary in churches and other Christian buildings, but the mobs broke in and killed them anyway.
In the 13th century, Crusades never expressed such a popular fever, and after
Acre fell for the last time in 1291 and the
Occitan Cathars were exterminated during the
Albigensian Crusade, the crusading ideal became devalued by Papal justifications of political and territorial aggressions within Catholic Europe.
The last crusading order of knights to hold territory were the
Knights Hospitaller. After the final fall of Acre, they took control of the island of
Rhodes, and in the sixteenth century, were driven to
Malta, before being finally unseated by
Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798.
List of crusades
A traditional numbering scheme for the Crusades totals nine during the 11th to 13th centuries, as well as other smaller sorties that were mostly contemporaneous and are unnumbered. There were frequent "minor" Crusades throughout this period, not only in Palestine but also in the Iberian Peninsula and central Europe, against Muslims and also Christian heretics and personal enemies of the Papacy or other powerful monarchs. Such "crusades" continued into the 16th century until the Renaissance and Reformation, when the political and religious climate of Europe was significantly different from that of the Middle Ages.
First Crusade 1096–1099
Main articles: First Crusade
In March 1095 at the
Council of Piacenza, ambassadors sent by Byzantine emperor Alexius I called for help with defending his empire against the
Seljuk Turks. Later that year, at the
Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II called upon all Christians to join a war against the Turks, promising those who died in the endeavor would receive immediate remission of their sins
[7]. Crusader armies managed to defeat two substantial Turkish forces at
Dorylaeum and at
Antioch, finally marching to Jerusalem with only a fraction of their original forces. In 1099, they
took Jerusalem by assault and massacred the population. As a result of the First Crusade, several small
Crusader states were created, notably the
Kingdom of Jerusalem.
Crusade of 1101
Main articles: Crusade of 1101
Following this crusade there was a second, less successful wave of crusaders. This is known as the Crusade of 1101 and may be considered an adjunct of the First Crusade.
Second Crusade 1147–1148
The state of Europe in 1142
After a period of relative peace in which Christians and Muslims co-existed in the Holy Land, Muslims conquered the town of
Edessa. A new crusade was called for by various preachers, most notably by
Bernard of Clairvaux. French and South German armies, under the Kings
Louis VII and
Conrad III respectively, marched to Jerusalem in 1147 but failed to accomplish any major successes, and indeed endangered the survival of the Crusader states with a strategically foolish attack on
Damascus. By 1150, both leaders had returned to their countries without any result. St. Bernard of Clairvaux, who in his preachings had encouraged the Second Crusade, was upset with the amount of misdirected violence and slaughter of the Jewish population of the Rhineland.
[8] North Germans and Danes attacked the
Wends during the 1147
Wendish Crusade, which was unsuccessful as well.
Third Crusade 1189–1192
Main articles: Third Crusade
In 1187,
Saladin, Sultan of Egypt, recaptured Jerusalem.
Pope Gregory VIII called for a crusade, which was led by several of Europe's most important leaders:
Philip II of France,
Richard I of England (aka Richard the Lion Heart), and
Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor. Frederick drowned in
Cilicia in 1190, leaving an unstable alliance between the English and the French. Philip left, in 1191, after the Crusaders had recaptured Acre from the Muslims. The Crusader army headed south along the coast of the
Mediterranean Sea. They defeated the Muslims near
Arsuf and were in sight of Jerusalem. However, due to an inadequate food and water supply, the crusade ended without the taking of Jerusalem. Richard left the following year after establishing a truce with Saladin.
On Richard's way home, his ship was wrecked and he ended up in
Austria, where his enemy,
Duke Leopold, captured him. The Duke delivered Richard to the Emperor
Henry VI, who held the King for ransom. By 1197, Henry felt ready for a crusade, but he died in the same year of
malaria. Richard I died during fighting in Europe and never returned to the Holy Land. The Third Crusade is sometimes referred to as the Kings' Crusade.
Fourth Crusade 1200–1204
Main articles: Fourth Crusade
The Fourth Crusade was initiated in 1202 by
Pope Innocent III, with the intention of invading the Holy Land through Egypt. Because the Crusaders lacked the funds to pay for the fleet and provisions that they had contracted from the
Venetians,
Doge Enrico Dandolo, enlisted the crusaders to restore the Christian city of Zara (
Zadar) to obedience. Because they subsequently lacked provisions and time on their vessel lease the leaders decided to go to
Constantinople, where they attempted to place a Byzantine exile on the throne. After a series of misunderstandings and outbreaks of violence, the crusaders sacked the city in 1204.
Albigensian Crusade
Main articles: Albigensian Crusade
The
Albigensian Crusade was launched in 1209 to eliminate the
heretical Cathars of
Occitania (the south of modern-day
France). It was a decades-long struggle that had much more to do with the concerns of northern France to extend its control southwards than it did with heresy. In the end, both the Cathars and the independence of southern France were exterminated.
Children's Crusade
Christian states in the Levant.
The Children's Crusade is a series of possibly fictitious or misinterpreted events of
1212. The story is that an outburst of the old popular enthusiasm led a gathering of children in France and Germany, which
Pope Innocent III interpreted as a reproof from heaven to their unworthy elders. The leader of the French army, Stephen, led 30,000 children. The leader of the German army, Nicholas, led 7,000 children. None of the children actually reached the Holy Land; they were either sold into slavery, died in shipwrecks crossing the Mediterranean Sea, returned home, settled along the route to Jerusalem, or died of hunger during the journey.
Fifth Crusade 1217–1221
Main articles: Fifth Crusade
By processions, prayers, and preaching, the Church attempted to set another crusade afoot, and the
Fourth Council of the Lateran (1215) formulated a plan for the recovery of the Holy Land. In the first phase, a crusading force from
Hungary and
Austria joined the forces of the king of Jerusalem and the
prince of Antioch to take back Jerusalem. In the second phase, crusader forces achieved a remarkable feat in the capture of
Damietta in Egypt in 1219, but under the urgent insistence of the
papal legate,
Pelagius, they then launched foolhardy attack on
Cairo in July of 1221. The crusaders were turned back after their dwindling supplies led to a forced retreat. A nighttime attack by the ruler of Egypt, the powerful Sultan
Al-Kamil, resulted in a great number of crusader losses and eventually in the surrender of the army. Al-Kamil agreed to an eight-year peace agreement with Europe.
Sixth Crusade 1228–1229
Main articles: Sixth Crusade
Emperor Frederick II had repeatedly vowed a crusade but failed to live up to his words, for which he was
excommunicated by
Pope Gregory IX in 1228. He nonetheless set sail from
Brindisi, landed in Palestine, and through diplomacy he achieved unexpected success: Jerusalem,
Nazareth, and
Bethlehem were delivered to the crusaders for a period of ten years.
Seventh Crusade 1248–1254
Main articles: Seventh Crusade
The papal interests represented by the
Templars brought on a conflict with Egypt in 1243, and in the following year a
Khwarezmian force summoned by the latter stormed Jerusalem. The crusaders were drawn into battle at
La Forbie in
Gaza. The crusader army and its Bedouin mercenaries were outnumbered by
Baibars' force of
Khwarezmian tribesmen and were completely defeated within forty-eight hours. This battle is considered by many historians to have been the death knell to the
Kingdom of Outremer. Although this provoked no widespread outrage in Europe as the fall of Jerusalem in 1187 had done,
Louis IX of France organized a crusade against Egypt from 1248 to 1254, leaving from the newly constructed port of
Aigues-Mortes in southern France. It was a failure, and Louis spent much of the crusade living at the court of the crusader kingdom in Acre. In the midst of this crusade was the first
Shepherds' Crusade in 1251.
Eighth Crusade 1270
Main articles: Eighth Crusade
The eighth Crusade was organized by
Louis IX in 1270, again sailing from Aigues-Mortes, initially to come to the aid of the remnants of the crusader states in
Syria. However, the crusade was diverted to
Tunis, where Louis spent only two months before dying. For his efforts, Louis was later canonised (the city of
St. Louis, Missouri, USA is named for him). The Eighth Crusade is sometimes counted as the Seventh, if the Fifth and Sixth Crusades are counted as a single crusade. The Ninth Crusade is sometimes also counted as part of the Eighth.
Ninth Crusade 1271–1272
Main articles: Ninth Crusade
The future
Edward I of England undertook another expedition in 1271, after having accompanied Louis on the Eighth Crusade. He accomplished very little in Syria and retired the following year after a truce.
In their later years, faced with the threat of the Egyptian
Mamluks, the Crusaders' hopes rested with a
Franco-Mongol alliance. The
Mongols were thought to be sympathetic to Christianity, and the Frankish princes were most effective in gathering their help, engineering their invasions of the Middle East on several occasions. Although the Mongols successfully attacked as far south as Damascus on these campaigns, the ability to effectively coordinate with Crusades from the west was repeatedly frustrated most notably at the
Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260. The Mamluks eventually made good their pledge to cleanse the entire Middle East of the infidel Franks. With the fall of
Antioch (1268),
Tripoli (1289), and
Acre (1291), the last traces of the Christian rule in Syria disappeared.
Northern Crusades (Baltic and Germany)
Main articles: Northern Crusades
The Crusades in the
Baltic Sea area and in
Central Europe were efforts by (mostly German) Christians to subjugate and convert the peoples of these areas to Christianity. These Crusades ranged from the 12th century, contemporaneous with the Second Crusade, to the 16th century.
Between 1232 and 1234, there was a crusade against the
Stedingers. This crusade was special, because the Stedingers were not heathens or heretics, but fellow Roman Catholics. They were free
Frisian farmers who resented attempts of the count of
Oldenburg and the archbishop
Bremen-Hamburg to make an end to their freedoms. The archbishop excommunicated them, and
Pope Gregory IX declared a crusade in 1232. The Stedingers were defeated in 1234.
Other crusades
Crusade against the Tatars
In
1259 Mongols ravaged the principality of
Halych-Volynia,
Lithuania and
Poland, led by
Burundai and
Nogai Khan. After that
Pope Alexander IV tried without success to create a crusade against the
Blue Horde.
In the 14th century, Khan
Tokhtamysh combined the Blue and White Hordes forming the
Golden Horde. It seemed that the power of the Golden Horde had begun to rise, but in 1389, Tokhtamysh made the disastrous decision of waging war on his former master, the great
Tamerlane. Tamerlane's hordes rampaged through southern
Russia, crippling the Golden Horde's economy and practically wiping out its defenses in those lands.
After losing the war, Tokhtamysh was then dethroned by the party of Khan Temur Kutlugh and Emir Edigu, supported by Tamerlane. When Tokhtamysh asked
Vytautas the Great for assistance in retaking the Horde, the latter readily gathered a huge army which included
Lithuanians, Ruthenians, Russians,
Mongols,
Moldavians, Poles, Romanians and
Teutonic knights.
In 1398, the huge army moved from Moldavia and conquered the southern steppe all the way to the
Dnieper River and northern
Crimea. Inspired by their great successes, Vytautas declared a 'Crusade against the Tatars' with
Papal backing. Thus, in 1399, the army of Vytautas once again moved on the Horde. His army met the Horde's at the
Vorskla River, slightly inside Lithuanian territory.
Although the Lithuanian army was well equipped with
cannon, it could not resist a rear attack from Edigu's reserve units. Vytautas hardly escaped alive. Many princes of his kin—possibly as many as 20—were killed (for example,
Stefan Musat, Prince of
Moldavia and two of his brothers, while a fourth was badly injured ), and the victorious Tatars besieged
Kiev. "And the Christian blood flowed like water, up to the Kievan walls," as one chronicler put it. Meanwhile, Temur Kutlugh died from the wounds received in the battle, and Tokhtamysh was killed by one of his own men.
Crusades in the Balkans
To counter the expanding
Ottoman Empire, several crusades were launched in the 15th century.
The most notable are:
★ the 'Crusade of Nicopolis' (1396) organized by
Sigismund of Luxemburg king of Hungary culminated in the
Battle of Nicopolis. It is often called the last of the crusades.
★ the '
Crusade of Varna' (1444) led by the Polish-Hungarian king
Władysław Warneńczyk ended in the
Battle of Varna
★ and the 'Crusade of 1456' organized to lift the
Siege of Belgrade led by
John Hunyadi and
Giovanni da Capistrano
Aragonese Crusade
The '
Aragonese Crusade', or Crusade of Aragón, was declared by
Pope Martin IV against the
King of Aragón, Peter III the Great, in 1284 and 1285.
Alexandrian Crusade
The '
Alexandrian Crusade' of October 1365 was a minor seaborne crusade against Muslim
Alexandria led by
Peter I of Cyprus. His motivation was at least as commercial as religious. It had limited success.
Hussite Crusade
The Hussite Crusade(s), also known as the "
Hussite Wars," or the "Bohemian Wars," involved the military actions against and amongst the followers of
Jan Hus in
Bohemia in the period 1420 to circa 1434. The Hussite Wars were arguably the first European war in which hand-held gunpowder weapons such as
muskets made a decisive contribution. The Hussite warriors were basically infantry, and their many defeats of larger armies with heavily armoured knights helped affect the infantry revolution. In the end, it was an inconclusive war.
Swedish Crusades
The
Swedish conquest of
Finland in the
Middle Ages has traditionally been divided into three "crusades": the
First Swedish Crusade around 1155 AD, the
Second Swedish Crusade about 1249 AD and the
Third Swedish Crusade in 1293 AD.
The First Swedish Crusade is purely legendary, and according to most historians today, never took place as described in the legend and did not result in any ties between Finland and Sweden. For the most part, it was made up in the late 13th century to date the Swedish rule in Finland further back in time. No historical record has also survived describing the second one, but it probably did take place and ended up in the concrete conquest of southwestern Finland. The third one was against
Novgorod, and is properly documented by both parties of the conflict.
According to archaeological finds, Finland was largely Christian already before the said crusades. Thus the "crusades" can rather be seen as ordinary expeditions of conquest whose main target was territorial gain. The expeditions were dubbed as actual crusades only in the 19th century by the national-romanticist Swedish and Finnish historians.
Historical perspective
Western and other interpretations
Western and Eastern
historiography present variously different views on the crusades, in large part because "crusade" invokes dramatically opposed sets of associations—"crusade" as a valiant struggle for a supreme cause, and "crusade" as a byword for barbarism and aggression. This contrasting view is not recent since Christians have in the past struggled with the tension of military activity and teachings of Christ to "love one's enemies" and to "turn the other cheek". For these reasons, the crusades have been controversial even among contemporaries.
Western sources speak of both heroism, faith and honour (emphasized in
chivalric romance), but also of acts of brutality. Islamic and Orthodox Christian chroniclers tell stories of barbarian savagery and brutality
[9].
Likewise, some modern historians in the west express moral outrage—for example
Steven Runciman, the leading western historian of the crusades for much of the 20th century, ended his history with a resounding condemnation:
:"High ideals were besmirched by cruelty and greed.. the Holy War was nothing more than a long act of intolerance in the name of God".
Eastern Orthodoxy
Like Muslims, Eastern Orthodox Christians also see the Crusades as attacks by "the barbarian West", but centered on the sack of Constantinople in 1204. Many relics and artifacts taken from Constantinople are still in the West, in the
Vatican and elsewhere. Disagreement currently exists between modern Turks and Greeks over the claimant rights to the
Greek Horses on the façade of
St. Mark's in
Venice. The Greeks argue that the frieze is inherently part of Greek culture and identity, similar to the
"Elgin" Marbles; the Turks counter that the freize originated from what is now modern-day
Istanbul. A picture of Turkish popular history of the Crusades can be assembled by compiling text of official Turkish brochures on Crusader fortifications in the Aegean coast and coastal islands.
Countries of Central Europe, despite the fact that they also belonged to
Western Christianity, were the most skeptical about the idea of Crusades. Many cities in Hungary were sacked by passing bands of Crusaders;
Polish Prince
Leszek I the White refused to join a Crusade, allegedly because of the lack of
mead in Palestine.
Popular reputation in Western Europe
In Western Europe, the Crusades have traditionally been regarded by laypeople as heroic adventures, though the mass enthusiasm of common people was largely expended in the First Crusade, from which so few of their class returned. Today, the "
Saracen" adversary is crystallized in the lone figure of Saladin; his adversary Richard the Lionheart is, in the
English-speaking world, the archetypical crusader king, while Frederick Barbarossa and Louis IX fill the same symbolic niche in German and French culture. Even in contemporary areas, the crusades and their leaders were romanticized in popular literature; the ''
Chanson d'Antioche'' was a
chanson de geste dealing with the First Crusade, and the
Song of Roland, dealing with the era of the similarly romanticized
Charlemagne, was directly influenced by the experience of the crusades, going so far as to replace Charlemagne's historic
Basque opponents with Muslims. A popular theme for
troubadours was the knight winning the love of his lady by going on crusade in the east.
In the 14th century,
Godfrey of Bouillon was united with the
Trojan War and the adventures of
Alexander the Great against a backdrop for military and courtly heroics of the
Nine Worthies who stood as popular secular
culture heroes into the 16th century, when more critical literary tastes ran instead to
Torquato Tasso and Rinaldo and Armida, Roger and Angelica. Later, the rise of a more authentic sense of history among literate people brought the Crusades into a new focus for the Romantic generation in the romances of Sir
Walter Scott in the early 19th century. Crusading imagery could be found even in the Crimean War, in which the United Kingdom and France were allied with the Muslim Ottoman Empire, and in
World War I, especially
Allenby's capture of Jerusalem in 1917.
In Spain, the popular reputation of the Crusades is outshone by the particularly Spanish history of the ''Reconquista''.
El Cid is the central figure.
Role of women
While traditional historiography conceptualizes the crusades as a masculine movement symbolic of honour and male courage, women were also involved.
Women at home were intricately connected whether aware of it or not in the recruitment of crusading men. Their encouragement and familial ties would present men friendly connections which made the prospect of taking the cross more appealing for those risking their lives. Arguably the most significant role that women played in the West during the crusades was their preservation of the home. While many men were gone to the East, women were needed to take care of the home. The best known example is of
Adela of Blois, wife of
Stephen of Blois whose correspondence with her husband while he was on Crusade and she was at home managing his fief has survived in part. It appears she was rather more keen on his crusading than he was. Men could journey to
The Holy Land without having to worry about their home because their wives were in charge of their estates and families.
[10]
Even though most women showed their support for the crusades at home, some women took the cross themselves to go on the crusade. Aristocratic women who joined the movement often found that they had new positions of authority they did not have in the West.
Eleanor of Aquitaine the wealthy queen of France and the wife of king
Louis VII took the cross from
St. Bernard of Clairvaux on Easter Sunday 1145 to join her husband.
[11] Another woman who had ultimate political power in the East was
Melisende of Jerusalem, who under law gained hereditary rights to the crown upon her husband’s death. Like Eleanor, Melisende never led troops into battle, but she did participate in acts of political diplomacy. Less successful was her grand-daughter
Sibylla of Jerusalem, whose choice of husband had been a crucial political issue since her childhood. Her second marriage to
Guy of Lusignan made him the
king-consort on the death of
Baldwin IV, with disastrous results. While most women were there to help and care for the crusading men by bringing them water or raising their spirits by offering emotional support, there were women who had specific tasks which defined their feminine characteristics like the washerwoman.
[12]
The permanent residents of the Crusader kingdoms, if born in Europe, had usually come unmarried. Very many married women from
Apulia in Southern Italy, where living conditions were often harsh, encouraging young women to take ship for Palestine in the knowledge that many men there were looking for wives.
The most controversial role that women had in the crusades was of course the role which threatened their femininity, actual militancy. When analyzing the primary documentation of female militancy, one must be cautious. The accounts of women fighting come mostly from Muslim historians whose aim was to portray Christian women as barbaric and ungodly because of their acts of killing. The contrasting view from Christian accounts portray women fighting only in emergency situations for the preservation of the camps and their own lives. In these cases women are seen as more feminine while behaving like ‘proper women’.
[13] It is essential to note that all writings of crusades came from men, and women no matter what role they played would have been interpreted subjectively either way.
Legacy
Europe
The crusades have been remembered relatively favourably in western Europe (countries which were, at the time of the Crusades, Roman Catholic countries). Nonetheless, there have certainly been many vocal critics of the Crusades in Western Europe since the Renaissance.
Politics and culture
The Crusades had an enormous influence on the European
Middle Ages. At times, much of the continent was united under a powerful
Papacy, but by the 14th century, the development of centralized bureaucracies (the foundation of the modern
nation-state) was well on its way in France, England,
Burgundy,
Portugal,
Castile, and
Aragon partly because of the dominance of the church at the beginning of the crusading era.
Although Europe had been exposed to
Islamic culture for centuries through contacts in Iberian Peninsula and
Sicily, much knowledge in areas such as science, medicine, and architecture was transferred from the Islamic to the western world during the crusade era.
The military experiences of the crusades also had their effects in Europe; for example, European
castles became massive stone structures as they were in the east, rather than smaller wooden buildings as they had typically been in the past.
In addition, the Crusades are seen as having opened up European culture to the world, especially Asia:
Along with trade, new scientific discoveries and inventions made their way east or west. Arab advances (including the development of
algebra, optics, and refinement of engineering) made their way west and sped the course of advancement in European universities that led to the Renaissance in later centuries
The invasions of German crusaders prevented formation of the large Lithuanian state incorporating all Baltic nations and tribes. Lithuania was destined to become a small country and forced to expand to the East looking for resources for wars with crusaders.
[14]
Trade
The need to raise, transport and supply large armies led to a flourishing of trade throughout Europe. Roads largely unused since the days of
Rome saw significant increases in traffic as local merchants began to expand their horizons. This was not only because the Crusades ''prepared'' Europe for travel, but also because many ''wanted'' to travel after being reacquainted with the products of the Middle East. This also aided in the beginning of the Renaissance in Italy, as various Italian
city-states from the very beginning had important and profitable trading colonies in the crusader states, both in the Holy Land and later in captured Byzantine territory.
Increased trade brought many things to Europeans that were once unknown or extremely rare and costly. These goods included a variety of spices, ivory, jade, diamonds, improved glass-manufacturing techniques, early forms of gun powder, oranges, apples, and other Asian crops, and many other products.
The achievement of preserving Christian Europe must not, however, ignore the eventual fall of the Christian Byzantine Empire, which was mostly caused by Fourth Crusade's extreme aggression against Eastern Orthodox Christianity, largely at the instigation of the infamous
Enrico Dandolo, the
Doge of Venice and financial backer of the Fourth Crusade. The Byzantine lands had been a stable Christian state since the 4th century. After the Crusaders took Constantinople in 1204, the Byzantines never again had as large or strong a state and finally fell in 1453.
Taking into account the fall of the Byzantines, the Crusades could be portrayed as the defence of Roman Catholicism against the violent expansion of Islam, rather than the defence of Christianity as a whole against Islamic expansion. On the other hand, the Fourth Crusade could be presented as an anomaly. It is also possible to find a compromise between these two points of view, specifically that the Crusades were Roman Catholic campaigns which primarily sought to fight Islam to preserve Catholicism, and secondarily sought to thereby protect the rest of Christianity; in this context, the Fourth Crusade's crusaders could have felt compelled to abandon the secondary aim in order to retain Dandolo's logistical support in achieving the primary aim. Even so, the Fourth Crusade was condemned by the Pope of the time (
Pope Innocent III) and is now generally remembered throughout Europe as a disgraceful failure.
Islamic world
The crusades had profound but localized effects upon the Islamic world, where the equivalents of "Franks" and "Crusaders" remained expressions of disdain. Muslims traditionally celebrate Saladin as a hero against the Crusaders. In the 21st century, some in the Arab world, such as the
Arab independence movement and
Pan-Islamism movement, continue to call Western involvement in the Middle East a "crusade". The Crusades were regarded by the Islamic world as cruel and savage onslaughts by European Christians.
The most devastating long term consequence of the crusades, according to historian
Peter Mansfield, was the creation of an Islamic mentality that sought a retreat into isolation. He says "Assaulted from all quarters, the Muslim world turned in on itself. It became oversensitive [and] defensive… attitudes that grew steadily worse as world-wide evolution, a process from which the Muslim world felt excluded, continued."
[15].
Jewish community
Main articles: History of the Jews and the Crusades
1250 French Bible illustration depicts Jews (identifiable by
Judenhut) being massacred by Crusaders
Though the Muslims in power at the time tried to protect the Jews in The Holy Land, the Crusaders' atrocities against them in the German and Hungarian towns, later also in those of France, England, and in the massacres of Jews in Palestine and Syria have become a significant part of the
history of anti-Semitism, although no Crusade was ever declared against Jews. These attacks left behind for centuries strong feelings of ill will on both sides. The social position of the Jews in western Europe was distinctly worsened, and legal restrictions increased during and after the Crusades. They prepared the way for the anti-Jewish legislation of
Pope Innocent III and formed the turning-point in medieval
anti-Semitism.
The crusading period brought with it many narratives from Jewish sources. Among the better-known Jewish narratives are the chronicles of Solomon Bar Simson and Rabbi Eliezer bar Nathan, "The Narrative of the Old Persecutions," by Mainz Anonymous, and "Sefer Zekhirah," and "The Book of Remembrance," by Rabbi Ephraim of Bonn.
Caucasus
In the
Caucasus Mountains of
Georgia, in the remote highland region of
Khevsureti, a tribe called the
Khevsurs are thought to possibly be direct descendants of a party of crusaders who got separated from a larger army and have remained in isolation with some of the crusader culture intact. Into the 20th century, relics of armor, weaponry and chain mail were still being used and passed down in such communities. Russian serviceman and ethnographer
Arnold Zisserman who spent 25 years (1842–67) in the Caucasus, believed the exotic group of Georgian highlanders were descendants of the last Crusaders based on their customs, language, art and other evidence.
[16] American traveler
Richard Halliburton saw and recorded the customs of the tribe in 1935
[17].
World War I and The Ottoman Empire
Despite the failure of the Ninth Crusade to leave a permanent Western civilization of states controlling the region, over 600 years later, the Ottoman Empire entered
World War One, and was subsequently defeated by the allied forces, which lead to the breakup of
Ottoman Empire.
With the destruction of the Ottoman Empire, Lebanon and Syria ended up under the control of France. The French also occupied
Morocco,
Algeria, and
Tunisia, at various times during the early part of the 20th century.
Italy took control of the areas that made up
Libya. The
British took control of the areas that became
Istanbul,
Iraq,
Palestine, and
Trans-Jordan.
Etymology and use of the term "crusade"
:''For other uses of the term "crusade", see
Crusade (disambiguation).''
The crusades were never referred to as such by their participants. The original crusaders were known by various terms, including ''fideles Sancti Petri'' (the faithful of
Saint Peter) or ''milites Christi'' (knights of Christ). They saw themselves as undertaking an ''iter'', a journey, or a ''peregrinatio'', a pilgrimage, though pilgrims were usually forbidden from carrying arms. Like pilgrims, each crusader swore a vow (a ''votus''), to be fulfilled on successfully reaching Jerusalem, and they were granted a cloth cross (''crux'') to be sewn into their clothes. This "taking of the cross", the ''crux'', eventually became associated with the entire journey; the word "crusade" (coming into English from the
French ''croisade'', the
Italian ''crociata'', the
Portuguese ''cruzada'', or the German ''Kreuzzug'') developed from this.
Since the 17th century, the term "crusade" has carried a connotation in the
West of being a righteous campaign, usually to "root out
evil", or to fight for a just cause. In a non-historical common or theological use, "crusade" has come to have a much broader emphatic or religious meaning—substantially removed from "armed struggle."
In a broader sense, "crusade" can be used, always in a
rhetorical and
metaphorical sense, to identify as righteous any war that is given a
religious or
moral justification.
Ardent activists may also refer to their causes as "crusades," as in the "Crusade against Adult Illiteracy," or a "Crusade against Littering." In recent years, however, the use of "crusade" as a positive term has become less frequent in order to avoid giving offense to Muslims or others offended by the term. The term may also sarcastically or pejoratively characterize the
zealotry of agenda promoters, for example with the moniker "Public Crusader" or the campaigns "Crusade against abortion," and the "Crusade for prayer in public schools."
See also
★
Bull of the Crusade
★
Crusade art
★
Crusade cycle
★
Crusader states
★
Crusaders, list of principal
★
List of Crusader castles
★
Military orders
★
Religious war
★
Hussites
★
Jihad
★
Shepherds' Crusade
★
Tenth Crusade
★
Kingdom of Heaven (film)
★
Medieval demography
★
Islamic Golden Age
★
List of wars in the Muslim world
★
Muslim conquests
★
Mongol invasions
★
Ottoman wars in Europe
★
Reconquista
★
Frisian participation in the Crusades
★
Franco-Mongol alliance
;the orders:
★
Knights of Malta
★
Knights Templar
★
Teutonic Knights
;famous opponents:
★
Saladin
★
Baibars
★
Alexander Nevsky
Notes
1. This term refers to a particular polity of the medieval world.
2. such as Muslim territories in Al Andalus, Ifriqiya, and Egypt, as well as in Eastern Europe
3. ''e.g.'' the Albigensian Crusade, the Aragonese Crusade, the Reconquista and the Northern Crusades.
4. Denys Pringle "Architecture in Latin East" in ''The Oxford History of the Crusades'' ed. Jonathan Riley-Smith (New York:Oxford University Press,1999) 157
5. Thomas F Madden ''A Concise History of the Crusades'' (Lanham:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc, 1999) 5
6. Thomas F Madden ''A Concise History of the Crusades'' (Lanham:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc, 1999) 8
7. Fulcher of Chartres, Medieval Sourcebook.
8. ''Crusades'' in ''The New Catholic Encyclopedia'', New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1966, Vol. IV, p. 508.
9. Maalouf, Amin. Crusades Through Arab Eyes.
10. Jonathan Riley-Smith. The First Crusaders 1096–1131, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press 1997, 99.
11. Roy Douglas Davis Owen. Eleanor of Aquitaine : queen and legend, Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell Publishing 1993, 22.
12. Susan B. Edington and Sarah Lambert ed. Gendering the Crusades, New York: Columbia University Press 2002, 98.
13. Helen Nicholson. “Women on the Third Crusade. ''Journal of Medieval History'' (23) no.4 (1997) pp. 337.â€
14. Tomas Baranauskas. ''Prūsų sukilimas—prarasta galimybė sukurti kitokią Lietuvą'' (Prussian rebellion—the lost chance of creating different Lithuania). 20 September, 2006
15. A History of the Middle East, Second Edition, London: Penguin Books, 2003, p 21.
16. ''Images from the Georgia–Chechnya Border, 1970–1980'', Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology.
17. Sword and Buckler Fighting among the Lost Crusaders. Excerpts of Halliburton's observations
External links
★ E.L. Skip Knox,
The Crusades, a virtual college course through
Boise State University.
★
Paul Crawford,
Crusades: A Guide to Online Resources, 1999.
★ Thomas F. Madden,
The Real History of the Crusades, an essay by the distinguished American historian of the Crusades.
★
The Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East—an international organization of professional Crusade scholars
★
De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History—contains articles and primary sources related to the Crusades
★
Resources > Medieval Jewish History > The Crusades The Jewish History Resource Center - Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The
Hebrew University of Jerusalem
★
The Crusades Encyclopedia - articles, primary and secondary sources, and bibliographies
★
An Islamic View of the Battlefieldan article that provides indepth analysis of the theological basis of human wars
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