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EspañolDIPLODOCUS
'''Diplodocus''' (pronounced ,[1][2] or ) is a genus of diplodocid sauropod dinosaur whose fossils were first discovered in 1877 by S. W. Williston. The generic name, coined by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1878, is a Neo-Latin term derived from Greek (''diploos'') "double" and (dokos) "beam", in reference to its double-beamed chevron bones located in the underside of the tail. These bones were initially believed to be unique to ''Diplodocus''; however, they have since then been discovered in other members of the diplodocid family and in non-diplodocid sauropods such as ''Mamenchisaurus''.
It lived in what is now western North America at the end of the Jurassic Period. ''Diplodocus'' is one of the more common dinosaur fossils found in the Upper Morrison Formation, a sequence of shallow marine and alluvial sediments deposited about 150 to 147 million years ago, in what is now termed the Kimmeridgian and Tithonian stages. The Morrison Formation records an environment and time dominated by gigantic sauropod dinosaurs such as ''Camarasaurus'', ''Barosaurus'', ''Apatosaurus'' and ''Brachiosaurus''.[3]
''Diplodocus'' is among the most easily identifiable dinosaurs, with its classic dinosaur shape, long neck and tail and four sturdy legs. For many years, it was the longest dinosaur known. Its great size may have been a deterrent to the predators ''Allosaurus'' and ''Ceratosaurus'': their remains have been found in the same strata, which suggests they coexisted with ''Diplodocus''.
Description
Skeletal diagram, with humans for scale.
One of the best-known sauropods, ''Diplodocus'' was a very large long-necked quadrupedal animal, with a long, whip-like tail. Its forelimbs were slightly shorter than its hind limbs, resulting in a largely horizontal posture. The long-necked, long-tailed animal with four sturdy legs has been mechanically compared with a suspension bridge.[4] In fact, ''Diplodocus'' is the longest dinosaur known from a complete skeleton.[4] While dinosaurs such as ''Supersaurus'' were probably longer, fossil remains of these animals are only fragmentary.[6]
The skull of ''Diplodocus'' was very small, compared with the size of the animal, which could reach up to 27 metres (90 feet), of which 6 metres (20 ft) was neck. The Dinosauria (2nd Edition), Upchurch P, Barrett PM, Dodson P, , , University of California Press, 2004, ISBN 0-520-24209-2 ''Diplodocus'' had small, 'peg'-like teeth that pointed forward and were only present in the anterior sections of the jaws.[7] Its braincase was small. The neck was composed of at least fifteen vertebrae and is now believed to have been generally held parallel to the ground and unable to have been elevated much past horizontal.[8] Modern mass estimates have tended to be in the 10 to 16 tonne (11–17.6 ton) range: 10 tonnes (11 tons);Dodson, P., Behrensmeyer, A.K., Bakker, R.T., and McIntosh, J.S. (1980). Taphonomy and paleoecology of the dinosaur beds of the Jurassic Morrison Formation. ''Paleobiology'' '6':208–232. 11.5 tonnes (12.7 tons);Paul, G.S. (1994). Big sauropods - really, really big sauropods. ''The Dinosaur Report, The Dinosaur Society'' Fall:12–13. 12.7 tonnes (14 tons);Foster, J.R. (2003). Paleoecological Analysis of the Vertebrate Fauna of the Morrison Formation (Upper Jurassic), Rocky Mountain Region, U.S.A. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science:Albuquerque, New Mexico. Bulletin 23. and 16 tonnes (17.6 tons).Coe, M.J., Dilcher, D.L., Farlow, J.O., Jarzen, D.M., and Russell, D.A. (1987). Dinosaurs and land plants. In: Friis, E.M., Chaloner, W.G., and Crane, P.R. (eds.). ''The Origins of Angiosperms and Their Biological Consequences.'' Cambridge University Press:New York, 225–258. ISBN 0521323576.
''Diplodocus'' tail, Natural History Museum, London.
''Diplodocus'' - Caudal vertebrae in the tail.
''Diplodocus'' had an extremely long tail, composed of about 80 caudal vertebrae, The Sauropods:Evolution and Paleobiology, Wilson JA, , , Indiana University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-520-24623-3 which is almost double the number some of the earlier sauropods had in their tails (such as ''Shunosaurus'' with 43), and far more than contemporaneous macronarians had (such as ''Camarasaurus'' with 53). There has been speculation as to whether it may have had a defensive[9] or noisemaking function.[10] The tail may have served as a counterbalance for the neck. The middle part of the tail had 'double beams' (oddly-shaped bones on the underside, which gave ''Diplodocus'' its name). They may have provided support for the vertebrae, or perhaps prevented the blood vessels from being crushed if the animal's heavy tail pressed against the ground. These 'double beams' are also seen in some related dinosaurs.
Discovery and species
Several species of ''Diplodocus'' were described between 1878 and 1924. The first skeleton was found at Como Bluff, Wyoming by Benjamin Mudge and Samuel Wendell Williston in 1878, and was named ''Diplodocus longus'' ('long double-beam'), by paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh in 1878.[11] ''Diplodocus'' remains have since been found in the Morrison Formation of the western U.S. States of Colorado, Utah, Montana and Wyoming. Fossils of this animal are common, except for the skull, which is often missing from otherwise complete skeletons. Although not the type species, ''D. carnegiei'' is the most completely known and most famous due to the large number of casts of its skeleton in museums around the world.
The two Morrison Formation sauropod genera ''Diplodocus'' and ''Barosaurus'' had very similar limb bones. In the past, many isolated limb bones were automatically attributed to ''Diplodocus'' but may, in fact, have belonged to ''Barosaurus''.[12]
Valid species
★ ''D. longus'', the type species, is known from two skulls and a caudal series from the Morrison Formation of Colorado and Utah. The Dinosauria (2nd Edition), Upchurch P, Barrett PM, Dodson P, , , University of California Press, 2004, ISBN 0-520-24209-2
★ ''D. carnegiei'', named after Andrew Carnegie, is the best known, mainly due to a near-complete skeleton collected by Jacob Wortman, of the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and described and named by John Bell Hatcher in 1901.
★ ''D. hayi'', known from a partial skeleton discovered by William H. Utterback in 1902 near Sheridan, Wyoming, was described in 1924.[13]
★ ''D. hallorum'', better known as ''Seismosaurus hallorum''. In 2004, a presentation at the annual conference of the Geological Society of America made a case for ''Seismosaurus'' being a junior synonym of ''Diplodocus''.[14] This was followed by a much more detailed publication in 2006, which not only renamed the species ''Diplodocus hallorum'', but also speculated that it could prove to be the same as ''D. longus''.[15]
''Nomina dubia'' (doubtful species)
★ ''D. lacustris'' is a ''nomen dubium'', named by Marsh in 1884, from remains of a smaller animal from Morrison, Colorado. These remains are now believed to have been from an immature animal, rather than from a separate species.[16]
Paleobiology
Due to a wealth of skeletal remains, ''Diplodocus'' is one of the best-studied dinosaurs. Many aspects of its lifestyle have been subjects of various theories over the years.
Habitat
Marsh and then Hatcher[17] assumed the animal was aquatic, because of the position of its nasal openings at the apex of the cranium. Similar aquatic behavior was commonly depicted for other large sauropods such as ''Brachiosaurus'' and ''Apatosaurus''. The idea of an aquatic existence was later debunked, as the water pressure on the chest wall of ''Diplodocus'' was proven to have been too great for the animal to have breathed. Since the 1970s, general consensus has the sauropods as firmly terrestrial animals, browsing on trees. However, a more recent theory suggests a likely riparian habitat for ''Diplodocus''.
Posture
A classic depiction of ''Diplodocus'' by Mary Woodward (1905), with neck high up in the air and tail on the ground, a posture now generally believed to be incorrect.
Another outmoded depiction of ''Diplodocus'' by Oliver P. Hay (1910), with a high head and sprawled limbs.[18]
The depiction of ''Diplodocus' posture has changed considerably over the years. For instance, a classic 1910 reconstruction by Oliver P. Hay depicts two ''Diplodocus'' with splayed lizard-like limbs on the banks of a river. Hay argued that ''Diplodocus'' had a sprawling, lizard-like gait with widely-splayed legs,[19] and was supported by Gustav Tornier. However, this hypothesis was put to rest by W. J. Holland, who demonstrated that a sprawling ''Diplodocus'' would have needed a trench to pull its belly through.[20]
Later, diplodocids were often portrayed with their necks held high up in the air, allowing them to graze from tall trees. More recently, scientists have argued that the heart would have had trouble sustaining sufficient blood pressure to oxygenate the brain. Furthermore, more recent studies have shown that the structure of the neck vertebrae would not have permitted the neck to bend far upwards.[21][22]
As with the related genus ''Barosaurus'', the very long neck of ''Diplodocus'' is the source of much controversy among scientists. A 1992 Columbia University study of Diplodocid neck structure indicated that the longest necks would have required a 1.6 ton heart. The study proposed that animals like these would have had rudimentary auxiliary 'hearts' in their necks, whose only purpose was to pump blood up to the next 'heart'.[4]
Modern depiction of ''Diplodocus'' with horizontal neck, flexible whip tail, keratinous spines and nostrils low on the snout.
While the long neck has traditionally been interpreted as a feeding adaptation, a recent study[24] suggests that the oversized neck of ''Diplodocus'' and its relatives may have been primarily a sexual display, with any other feeding benefits coming second.
Diet
''Diplodocus'' has highly unusual teeth compared to other sauropods. The crowns are long and slender, elliptical in cross-section, while the apex forms a blunt triangular point.[25] The most prominent wear facet is on the apex, though unlike all other wear patterns observed within sauropods, ''Diplodocus'' wear patterns are on the labial (cheek) side of both the upper and lower teeth.[25] What this means is ''Diplodocus'' and other diplodocids had a radically different feeding mechanism than other sauropods. Unilateral branch-stripping is the most likely feeding behaviour of ''Diplodocus'',[27][28][29] as it explains the unusual wear patterns of the teeth (coming from tooth-food contact). In unilateral branch stripping, one tooth row would have been used to strip foliage from the stem, while the other would act as a guide and stabiliser. With the elongated preorbital (in-front of the eyes) region of the skull, longer portions of stems could be stripped in a single action.[25] Also the palinal (backwards) motion of the lower jaws could have contributed two significant roles to feeding behaviour: 1) an increased gape, and 2) allowed fine adjustments of the relative positions of the tooth rows, creating a smooth stripping action.[25]
With a laterally and dorsoventrally flexible neck, and the possibilty of using its tail and rearing up on its hind limbs (tripodal ability), ''Diplodocus'' would have had the ability to browse at many levels (low, medium, and high), up to approximately 10 metres (33 ft) from the ground.[32] The neck's range of movement would have also allowed the head to graze below the level of the body, leading some scientists to speculate on whether ''Diplodocus'' grazed on submerged water plants, from riverbanks. This concept of the feeding posture is supported by the relative lengths of front and hind limbs. Furthermore, its peglike teeth may have been used for eating soft water plants.[21]
Other anatomical aspects
a) skull, b) classic rendering of the head with nostrils on top, c) Bakker's theory of a trunk, d) modern depiction with nostrils low on the snout and a possible resonating chamber.
The head of ''Diplodocus'' has been widely depicted with the nostrils on top due to the position of the nasal openings at the apex of the skull. There has been speculation over whether such a configuration meant that ''Diplodocus'' may have had a trunk.[34] A recent study[35] surmised there was no paleoneuroanatomical evidence for a trunk. It noted that the facial nerve in an animal with a trunk, such as an elephant, is large as it innervates the trunk. The evidence suggests that the facial nerve is very small in ''Diplodocus''. Studies by Lawrence Witmer (2001) indicated that, while the nasal openings were high on the head, the actual, fleshy nostrils were situated much lower down on the snout.[36]
Recent discoveries have suggested that ''Diplodocus'' and other diplodocids may have had narrow, pointed keratinous spines lining their back, much like those on an iguana.[37][38] This radically different look has been incorporated into recent reconstructions, notably ''Walking with Dinosaurs''. It is unknown exactly how many diplodocids had this trait, and whether it was present in other sauropods.
Reproduction and growth
While there is no evidence for ''Diplodocus'' nesting habits, other sauropods such as the titanosaurian ''Saltasaurus'' have been associated with nesting sites.[39][40] The titanosaurian nesting sites indicate that may have laid their eggs communally over a large area in many shallow pits, each covered with vegetation. It is possible that ''Diplodocus'' may have done the same. The documentary ''Walking with Dinosaurs'' portrayed a mother ''Diplodocus'' using an ovipositor to lay eggs, but it was pure speculation on the part of the documentary.
Following a number of bone histology studies, ''Diplodocus'', along with other sauropods, grew at a very fast rate, reaching sexual maturity at just over a decade, though continuing to grow throughout their lives.[41][42][43] Previous thinking held that sauropods would keep growing slowly throughout their lifetime, taking decades to reach maturity.
Classification
''Diplodocus'' is both the type genus of, and gives its name to 'Diplodocidae', the family to which it belongs.[44] Members of this family, while still massive, are of a markedly more slender build when compared with other sauropods, such as the titanosaurs and brachiosaurs. All are characterised by long necks and tails and a horizontal posture, with forelimbs shorter than hindlimbs. Diplodocids flourished in the Late Jurassic of North America and possibly Africa The Sauropods:Evolution and Paleobiology, Wilson JA, , , Indiana University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-520-24623-3 and appear to have been replaced ecologically by titanosaurs during the Cretaceous.
A subfamily, 'Diplodocinae', was erected to include ''Diplodocus'' and its closest relatives, including ''Barosaurus''. More distantly related is the contemporaneous ''Apatosaurus'', which is still considered a diplodocid although not a diplodocine, as it is a member of the subfamily Apatosaurinae.[45][46] The Portuguese ''Dinheirosaurus'' and the African ''Tornieria'' have also been identified as close relatives of ''Diplodocus'' by some authors.[47][48]
The 'Diplodocoidea' comprises the diplodocids, as well as dicraeosaurids, rebbachisaurids, ''Suuwassea'',[45][46] ''Amphicoelias''[48] and possibly ''Haplocanthosaurus'',[52] and/or the nemegtosaurids. The Dinosauria (2nd Edition), Upchurch P, Barrett PM, Dodson P, , , University of California Press, 2004, ISBN 0-520-24209-2 This clade is the sister group to, ''Camarasaurus'', brachiosaurids and titanosaurians; the Macronaria. The Dinosauria (2nd Edition), Upchurch P, Barrett PM, Dodson P, , , University of California Press, 2004, ISBN 0-520-24209-2 [52] Together they comprise Neosauropoda; the largest, most diverse and successful group of sauropodomorph dinosaurs.
In popular culture
A statue of ''Diplodocus carnegiei'' in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
''Diplodocus'' has been a famous and much-depicted dinosaur. Much of this has probably been due to its wealth of skeletal remains and former status as the longest known dinosaur. However, the donation of many mounted skeletal casts around the world a century ago The Dinosaur Heresies: New Theories Unlocking The Mystery of the Dinosaurs and Their Extinction, , Robert T., Bakker, William Morrow, 1986, did much to familarise it to people worldwide. Casts of ''Diplodocus'' skeletons are still displayed in many museums worldwide, including an unusual ''D. hayi'' in the Houston Museum of Natural Science, and ''D. carnegiei'' in the Natural History Museum in London, the Natural Science Museum in Madrid, Spain, the Senckenberg Museum in Frankfurt, Germany, the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago and, of course, the original is still on display at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh. A mounted skeleton of ''D. longus'' is at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D. C., while a mounted skeleton of ''D. hallorum'' (formerly ''Seismosaurus''), which may be the same as ''D. longus'', can be found at the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science.
''Diplodocus'' has been a frequent subject in dinosaur films, both factual and fictional. It was featured in the second episode of the award-winning BBC television series ''Walking with Dinosaurs''. The episode "Time of the Titans" follows the life of a simulated ''Diplodocus'' 152 million years ago. The animated feature ''Fantasia'' features many sauropods in the Rite of Spring sequence, some narrower-headed ones of which may be ''Diplodocus''. In literature, James A. Michener's book ''Centennial'' has a chapter devoted to ''Diplodocus'', narrating the life and death of one individual.
Footnotes
1. The Oxford English Dictionary, Simpson, John; Edmund Weiner (eds.), , , Oxford University Press, 1989,
2. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Pickett, Joseph P. et al. (eds.), , , Houghton Mifflin Company, 2000,
3. Christine C.E. & Peterson, F. (2004). "Reconstruction of the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation extinct ecosystem—a synthesis". Sedimentary Geology '167', 309–355
4. Lambert D. (1993)''The Ultimate Dinosaur Book'' ISBN 0-86438-417-3
5. Lambert D. (1993)''The Ultimate Dinosaur Book'' ISBN 0-86438-417-3
6. Wedel, M.J. and Cifelli, R.L. ''Sauroposeidon'': Oklahoma’s Native Giant. 2005. Oklahoma Geology Notes 65:2.
7. Upchurch, P. & Barrett, P.M. (2000). Chapter 4: The evolution of sauropod feeding mechanism. IN: ''Evolution of Herbivory in Terrestrial Vertebrates'' ISBN 0-521-59449-9
8. Stevens, K.A. & Parrish, M. (1999). "Neck Posture and Feeding Habits of Two Jurassic Sauropod Dinosaurs". Science '284', 798–800
9.
Heads and Tails: a few notes relating to the structure of sauropod dinosaurs., Holland WJ, , , Annals of the Carnegie Museum, 1915
10. Supersonic sauropods? Tail dynamics in the diplodocids, Myhrvold NP and Currie PJ, , , Paleobiology, 1997
11. Marsh OC. Principal characters of American Jurassic dinosaurs. Part I. American Journal of Science 3; 411–416 (1878).
12. Thunder Lizards: The Sauropodomorph Dinosaurs, McIntosh, , , Indiana University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-253-34542-1
13. Holland WJ. The skull of ''Diplodocus''. Memoirs of the Carnegie Museum IX; 379–403 (1924).
14. Lucas S, Herne M, Heckert A, Hunt A, and Sullivan R. Reappraisal of ''Seismosaurus'', A Late Jurassic Sauropod Dinosaur from New Mexico. The Geological Society of America, 2004 Denver Annual Meeting (November 7–10, 2004). Retrieved on 2007-05-24.
15. Paleontology and Geology of the Upper Morrison Formation, Lucas, S.G., Spielman, J.A., Rinehart, L.A., Heckert, A.B., Herne, M.C., Hunt, A.P., Foster, J.R., and Sullivan, R.M., , , New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science (bulletin 36), 2006, ISSN 1524-4156
16. Upchurch, P., Barrett, P.M., and Dodson, P. (2004). "Sauropoda." In D. B. Weishampel, P. Dodson, and H. Osmólska (eds.), ''The Dinosauria (2nd edition)''. University of California Press, Berkeley 259–322.
17. Hatcher JB. "''Diplodocus'' (Marsh): Its osteology, taxonomy, and probable habits, with a restoration of the skeleton,". Memoirs of the Carnegie Museum, vol. 1 (1901), pp. 1–63
18. Hay, O. P., 1910, Proceedings of the
Washington Academy of Sciences, vol. 12,, pp. 1–25
19. Hay, Dr. Oliver P., "On the Habits and Pose of the Sauropod Dinosaurs, especially of Diplodocus." The American Naturalist, Vol. XLII, Oct. 1908
20. Holland, Dr. W. J., "A Review of Some Recent Criticisms of the Restorations of Sauropod Dinosaurs Existing in the Museums of the United States, with Special Reference to that of Diplodocus carnegiei in the Carnegie Museum", The American Naturalist, 44:259–283. 1910.
21. Thunder Lizards: The Sauropodomorph Dinosaurs, Stevens KA, Parrish JM, , , Indiana University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-253-34542-1
22. "Neck Posture of Sauropod Dinosaurs"
23. Lambert D. (1993)''The Ultimate Dinosaur Book'' ISBN 0-86438-417-3
24. Senter, P. "Necks for Sex: Sexual Selection as an Explanation for Sauropod Neck Elongation". Journal of Zoology, 2006
25. Upchurch, P. & Barrett, P.M. (2000). Chapter 4: The evolution of sauropod feeding mechanism. IN: ''Evolution of Herbivory in Terrestrial Vertebrates'' ISBN 0-521-59449-9
26. Upchurch, P. & Barrett, P.M. (2000). Chapter 4: The evolution of sauropod feeding mechanism. IN: ''Evolution of Herbivory in Terrestrial Vertebrates'' ISBN 0-521-59449-9
27. Norman, D.B. (1985). "The illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs". London: Salamander Books Ltd
28. Dodson, P. (1990). Sauropod paleoecology. IN: "The Dinosauria" 1st Edition, (Eds. Weishampel, D.B., Dodson, P. & Osmólska, H.)
29. Barrett, P.M. & Upchurch, P. (1994). Feeding mechanisms of ''Diplodocus''. Gaia '10', 195–204
30. Upchurch, P. & Barrett, P.M. (2000). Chapter 4: The evolution of sauropod feeding mechanism. IN: ''Evolution of Herbivory in Terrestrial Vertebrates'' ISBN 0-521-59449-9
31. Upchurch, P. & Barrett, P.M. (2000). Chapter 4: The evolution of sauropod feeding mechanism. IN: ''Evolution of Herbivory in Terrestrial Vertebrates'' ISBN 0-521-59449-9
32. Barrett, P.M. & Upchurch, P. (2005). Sauropodomorph Diversity through Time, Paleoecological and Macroevolutionary Implications. IN: "The Sauropods: Evolution and Paleobiology" (Eds. Curry, K. C.)
33. Thunder Lizards: The Sauropodomorph Dinosaurs, Stevens KA, Parrish JM, , , Indiana University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-253-34542-1
34. Bakker, Robert T. (1986) The Dinosaur Heresies: New Theories Unlocking the Mystery of the Dinosaurs and their Extinction. New York: Morrow.
35. Knoll, F., Galton, P.M., López-Antoñanzas, R. (2006). "Paleoneurological evidence against a proboscis in the sauropod dinosaur ''Diplodocus''." ''Geobios'', '39': 215–221
36. Lawrence M. Witmer et al., "Nostril Position in Dinosaurs and other Vertebrates and its Significance for Nasal Function." Science '293', 850 (2001)
37. Czerkas, S. A. (1993). "Discovery of dermal spines reveals a new look for sauropod dinosaurs." Geology '20', 1068–1070
38. Czerkas, S. A. (1994). "The history and interpretation of sauropod skin impressions." In ''Aspects of Sauropod Paleobiology'' (M. G. Lockley, V. F. dos Santos, C. A. Meyer, and A. P. Hunt, Eds.), ''Gaia'' 'No. 10'. (Lisbon, Portugal).
39. Walking on Eggs: The Astonishing Discovery of Thousands of Dinosaur Eggs in the Badlands of Patagonia, by Luis Chiappe and Lowell Dingus. June 19, 2001, Scribner
40. Grellet-Tinner, Chiappe, & Coria, "Eggs of titanosaurid sauropods from the Upper Cretaceous of Auca Mahuevo (Argentina)", Can. J. Earth Sci. 41(8): 949–960 (2004)
41. Sander, P. M. (2000). "Long bone histology of the Tendaguru sauropods: Implications for growth and biology". Paleobiology '26', 466–488
42. Sander, P. M., N. Klein, E. Buffetaut, G. Cuny, V. Suteethorn, and J. Le Loeuff (2004). "Adaptive radiation in sauropod dinosaurs: Bone histology indicates rapid evolution of giant body size through acceleration". Organisms, Diversity & Evolution '4', 165–173
43. Sander, P. M., and N. Klein (2005). "Developmental plasticity in the life history of a prosauropod dinosaur". Science '310' 1800–1802
44. Marsh, O.C. 1884. Principal characters of American Jurassic dinosaurs. Part VII. On the Diplodocidae, a new family of the Sauropoda. ''American Journal of Science'' 3: 160–168.
45. Taylor, M.P. & Naish, D. 2005. The phylogenetic taxonomy of Diplodocoidea (Dinosauria: Sauropoda). ''PaleoBios'' 25(2): 1–7. (download here)
46. Harris, J.D. 2006. The significance of ''Suuwassea emiliae'' (Dinosauria: Sauropoda) for flagellicaudatan intrarelationships and evolution. ''Journal of Systematic Palaeontology'' 4(2): 185–198.
47. Bonaparte, J.F. & Mateus, O. 1999. A new diplodocid, ''Dinheirosaurus lourinhanensis'' gen. et sp. nov., from the Late Jurassic beds of Portugal. ''Revista del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales''. 5(2):13–29. (download here)
48. Rauhut, O.W.M., Remes, K., Fechner, R., Cladera, G., & Puerta, P. 2005. Discovery of a short-necked sauropod dinosaur from the Late Jurassic period of Patagonia. ''Nature'' 435: 670–672.
49. Taylor, M.P. & Naish, D. 2005. The phylogenetic taxonomy of Diplodocoidea (Dinosauria: Sauropoda). ''PaleoBios'' 25(2): 1–7. (download here)
50. Harris, J.D. 2006. The significance of ''Suuwassea emiliae'' (Dinosauria: Sauropoda) for flagellicaudatan intrarelationships and evolution. ''Journal of Systematic Palaeontology'' 4(2): 185–198.
51. Rauhut, O.W.M., Remes, K., Fechner, R., Cladera, G., & Puerta, P. 2005. Discovery of a short-necked sauropod dinosaur from the Late Jurassic period of Patagonia. ''Nature'' 435: 670–672.
52. Wilson, J. A., 2002, "Sauropod dinosaur phylogeny: critique and cladistica analysis". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 136: 217–276.
53. Wilson, J. A., 2002, "Sauropod dinosaur phylogeny: critique and cladistica analysis". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 136: 217–276.
External links
★ ''Diplodocus'' in the Dino Directory
★ Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid
★ Diplodocus Marsh, by J.B. Hatcher 1901 - Its Osteology, Taxonomy, and Probable Habits, with a Restoration of the Skeleton. Memoirs of the Carnegie Museum, Volume 1, Number 1, 1901. Full text, Free to read.
★ Carnegie Museum of Natural History - History
★ Skeletal restorations of diplodocids including ''D. carnegii'', ''D. longus'', and ''D. hallorum'', from Scott Hartman's Skeletal Drawing website.
★ Chapter 5: The Amphibious Dinosaurs - Brontosaurus, Diplodocusw, Etc. Sub-Order Opisthocœlia (Cetiosauria or Sauropoda by W. D. Matthew, who is credited amongst other accomplishments as authorship of the family Dromaeosauridae, and former Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology at the American Museum of Natural History in New York; Originally published in 1915
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