DOG TRAINING

'Dog training' is the process of teaching a dog to perform certain behaviors under various circumstances and in certain roles. It is a general term not describing by itself either what or how the dog is taught.
There are as many areas to train a dog in as there are methods. Most often certain methods, or combinations of methods are applied to any area of training. Obedience, herding, agility, tracking, retrieving, hunting, guard, and schutzhund are common areas of dog training.

★ Teaching a dog basic obedience commands (part of obedience training)

★ Teaching a dog to perform tricks casually or for circus acts

★ Teaching a guide dog to lead the blind

★ Teaching a rescue dog to find victims of a disaster

★ Helping a hunting dog learn to perform its instinctive behaviors at appropriate times
The specific behaviors taught in each case are different, but the underlying principles are similar.
As pack animals, wild dogs have natural instincts that favor cooperation with their fellow dogs. These instincts have been refined and exaggerated through years of selective breeding by humans, and are manifested in the domestic dog’s adeptness at correctly interpreting and responding to signals given by a human handler. The 'handler' is simply whoever is working with a dog at the time.

Basic training

Most dogs, no matter their eventual advanced training or intended purpose, live with people and therefore must behave in a way that makes them pleasant to be around, keeps them safe, and provides for the safety of other people and pets. Dogs do not figure out basic obedience on their own; they must be trained.
The hardest part of training is communicating with the dog in a humane way that he understands. However, the underlying principle of all communication is simple: reward desired behavior while ignoring or correcting undesired behavior.
Basic pet obedience training usually consists of 5 behaviors:

★ Sit

★ Down

★ Stay

★ Recall ("come" or "here")

★ Close (or loose-leash walking)
The recall command is arguably the most important of all training commands. It is critical to never punish a dog if they respond to a recall. Punishing a dog upon recall quickly teaches the dog that if he returns he will be punished. If the dog requires a correction, the handler should go to the dog - the dog should not be asked to come and then punished. The dog will attribute the punishment to whatever behavior he was doing directly before receiving it, and if that behavior was responding (correctly) to a recall, then the handler has just inadvertently taught the dog to run away from the recall command.
"Corrections" should never include harmful physical force or violence. Using force while training is controversial and should not be taken lightly, because even if it ends the behavior, when applied inappropriately with some dogs it may lead to a loss of drive (enthusiasm for the given task), stress, and in extreme cases even aggression. It is up to the handler to decide what amount of force (if any) is appropriate. However, the standard used by most trainers is the minimum amount necessary to inhibit the unwanted behavior. A common technique is to quickly jerk an attached collar and "lead" (another term for a leash, usually short, 4' is good) as a consequence for ignoring a command. (i.e., Sparky is jumping up on a guest, say "off" if he's already jumped up, or if you see he's thinking about it say, "down" and if the command is ignored then "correct" Sparky by "snapping" the lead to make his collar rattle.) A common alternative to physical corrections is a time-out from a preferred location or activity. (i.e., Sparky jumps up on a guest and is immediately given a 5-minute time-out in a separate room - away from the guests he wants to interact with.)

Puppies and learning

The prenatal period is a recent addition to the developmental periods of puppies. Some trainers specialise in this period, a very accomplished trainer being Rob Biggins; Rob believes himself to belong to an executive class of trainers and is only known to deal with dogs belonging to some of the more upper class breeding strains from discerning breeders. Biggins is also so for extortionate charges for training, although often takes in dogs on Scholarships; though the dogs he trains for free must be seen as future champions; Champion dogs are known to make Rob and the dogs' owners very wealthy. It is thought that “long-term effects on behavioral development may also be produced in some mammals by events occurring in utero.” (Serpell, 1995, p. 80) Previous studies tended to overlook the existence of this period, since the puppy’s behavior could not be observed. With the development of the ultrasound machine, a puppy could be observed within the mother as early as the fourth week of gestation.
It was found that puppies would react to touch and/or pressure from the outside of the mother’s abdomen. In addition, it is theorized that since puppies have such a well-developed sense of touch at birth, the sense of touch would also be well-developed before birth. Puppies may be sensitive to touch received by the mother while still unborn. Studies have found that “when a pregnant animal is petted her litter is more docile (Denenberg and Whimbey 1963, in Fox 1978).” According to Fox (1975, in Fox 1978) this facilitates relaxation, emotional attachment, and socialization as well. Other studies have indicated that puppies that receive outside contact (petting of the mother) while in utero have a higher tolerance for touching than puppies who receive no contact at all. One could deduce that gentle petting of the mother’s abdomen could help to facilitate positive, beneficial puppy socialization with people.
During the first two weeks of a puppy's life, also known as the neonate period, puppies can learn simple associations. (Serpell, 1995) However, early experience events are unlikely to carry over into later periods. Studies indicate that puppies in the neonate period do not seem to learn by experience. (Scott and Fuller, 1965) It is theorized that this is due to the fact that the puppy’s brain, sense, and motor organs are still undeveloped. Based on its limited capacity to sense and learn it would be difficult to affect the puppy psychologically, either in a positive or negative sense. (Scott and Fuller, 1965)
The next period of development is known as the socialization period. This is arguably the most important developmental period, beginning around 3 weeks (21 days) old, and ending around 12 weeks old. (Beaver, 1999) The biggest aspect of this period is social play. Social investigation (curiosity), playful fighting and playful sexual behavior (body contact) is very important to developing social relationships during its life. (Scott and Fuller, 1965) New behavior patterns are directly influenced by the puppy’s interaction with its mother and other puppies in the litter.
This is a time for developing social relationships, both among other puppies as well as with people. These behaviors are relatively easy for any individual who stays with the puppies during this period. However, there is a point where the puppies can develop a fear of strangers. At 3-5 weeks of age, puppies will actively approach strangers. Shortly thereafter stranger avoidance begins and slowly escalates until it peaks around 12-14 weeks of age. (Beaver, 1999) While this natural fear of strangers could serve as a way to keep a curious puppy away from predators, it can also hinder normal relationships with people.
During this period, startle reactions to sudden movement and sounds is now present. This serves to help the puppy learn to differentiate between which events are dangerous, and which events are safe or insignificant. (Scott and Fuller, 1965) During the socialization period, the development of attachment to certain locations occurs. This is displayed by an extreme disturbance in the puppy whenever a change in location occurs. This is known as “localization”. (Serpell, 1995) “Localization” often peaks in puppies between 6-7 weeks old (Scott and Fuller, 1965), and then tapers off after that time to the point where a change in location is no longer distressing to the puppy.
Dogs that are handled and petted by humans regularly during the first eight weeks of life are generally much more amenable to being trained and living in human households. Ideally, puppies should be placed in their permanent homes between about 8 and 10 weeks of age. In some places it is against the law to take puppies away from their mothers before the age of 8 weeks. Before this age, puppies are still learning tremendous amounts of socialization skills from their mother. Puppies are innately more fearful of new things during the period from 10 to 12 weeks, which makes it harder for them to adapt to a new home.
Puppies can begin learning tricks and commands as early as 8 weeks of age; the only limitations are the pup's stamina, concentration, and physical coordination. It is much easier to live with young dogs that have already learned basic commands such as ''sit''. Waiting until the puppy is older and has already learned undesirable habits makes the training much more challenging. (Beaver, 1999; Lindsay, 2000; Scott and Fuller 1965; Serpell 1995)

Basic training classes

Professional "dog trainers" usually do not train the dogs, but actually train the ''owners'' on how to train their own dogs. Although it is also possible to send a dog away to a training school, the owner still must at some point learn what the dog has learned and how to use and reinforce the techniques. Some call this a shortcut, but plenty of work is still required and training must continue over the course of the dog's life. Owners and dogs who attend class together have an opportunity to learn more about each other and how to work together under a trainer's guidance. Training is most effective if everyone who handles the dog takes part in the training to ensure consistent commands, methods, and enforcement. Classes also help socialize your dog to other people and dogs. Training classes are offered by many kennels, pet stores, and independent trainers.
Formal training in classes is not always available until the puppy has completed all its vaccinations at around 4 months; however, some trainers offer puppy socialization classes in which puppies can enroll immediately after being placed in their permanent homes as long as disease risk is minimal and puppies have received initial vaccinations. In most cases, basic training classes accept only puppies who are at least 3 to 6 months old.

Communicating with the dog

Fundamentally, dog training is about communication. From the human perspective the handler is communicating to the dog what behaviors are correct, desired, or preferred in what circumstances and what behaviours are undesirable. From the canine perspective the handler must learn what motivates the dog if the optimum result is desired.
A successful handler must also understand the communication that the dog sends to the handler. The dog can signal that he is unsure, confused, nervous, happy, excited, and so on. The emotional state of the dog is an important consideration in directing the training, as a dog that is stressed or distracted will not learn efficiently.
According to Learning Theory there are four important messages that the handler can send the dog:
; Reward or release marker: Correct behavior. You have earned a reward. For example, "Free" or "Okay" followed by a reward.
; Keep going signal: Correct behavior. Continue and you will earn a reward. For example, "Good" or "Come on".
; No reward marker: Incorrect behavior. Try something else. For example, "Uh-oh" or "Try again".
; Punishment marker: Incorrect behavior. You have earned punishment. For example, "No" or more specific commands like "off," "out," or "leave it."
Using 'consistent' signals or words for these messages enables the dog to understand them more quickly. If the handler sometimes says "good" as a reward marker and sometimes as a keep going signal, it is difficult for the dog to know when he has earned a reward.
It is important to note that the dog's reward is not the same as the reward marker. The reward marker is a signal that tell the dog that he has earned the reward. Many novice dog owners make the mistake of using effusive verbal praise as both a reward marker ''and'' a reward, which can confuse dog and owner.
Rewards can be praise, treats, play, or anything that the dog finds rewarding. Failure to reward after the reward marker diminishes the value of the reward marker and makes training more difficult.
These four messages do not have to be communicated only with words, but also with nonverbal signals. In particular, mechanical clickers are frequently used for the reward marker. Hand signals and body language also play an important part in learning for dogs. The meanings of the four signals are taught to the dog through repetition, so that he may form an association by classical conditioning. For example, if the handler consistently gives the dog a reward marker immediately before he gives the dog a food treat, the dog soon will learn to associate the reward marker with receiving something pleasant (clicker trainers call forming this association "charging up" the clicker). Likewise, if the dog is always given a punishment marker before he is scolded or put outside for bad behaviour, he will soon learn to associate the punishment marker with the punishment itself.
Dogs usually do not generalize commands easily; that is, a dog who has learned a command in a particular location and situation may not immediately recognize the command to other situations. A dog who knows how to "down" in the living room may suffer genuine confusion if asked to "down" at the park or in the car. The command will need to be retaught in each new situation, though it may be substantially easier after being taught at home where there are fewer distractions. This is sometimes called "cross-contextualization," meaning the dog has to apply what's been learned to many different contexts.

Reward and punishment

Most training revolves around giving the dog consequences for his behaviour, in the hope of influencing the behaviour the dog will exhibit in the future. Operant conditioning defines four types of consequences:
'Positive reinforcement' adds something to the situation to increase the chance of the behaviour being exhibited again (for example, giving a dog a treat when he sits.)
'Negative reinforcement' removes something from the situation to increase the chance of the behaviour being exhibited again (for example, releasing the tension on an uncomfortable training collar when the dog stops pulling on the leash).
'Positive punishment' adds something to the situation to decrease the chance of the behaviour being exhibited again (for example, verbally growling at a dog to make it stop jumping up).
'Negative punishment' removes something from the situation to decrease the chance of the behaviour being exhibited again (for example, walking away from a dog who jumps up).
Most modern trainers say that they use "positive training methods", which is a different meaning of the word "positive" from that in operant conditioning. "Positive training methods" generally means preferring the use of reward-based training to increase good behavior over that of physical punishment to decrease bad behavior. However, a good trainer understands all four methods, whether or not they can put operant-conditioning terminology to them, and applies them as appropriate for the dog, the breed, the handler, and the situation.

Rewards

Positive reinforcers can be anything that the dog finds rewarding - special food treats, the chance to play with a tug toy, social interaction with other dogs, or the owner's attention. The more rewarding a dog finds a particular reinforcer, the more work he will be prepared to do in order to obtain the reinforcer.
It is important that the dog is not "bribed" to perform. In dog training, the term "bribery" means that the dog is aware of the presence of the reward before he is asked to complete the command. The risk with bribery is that the dog will refuse to comply with commands when he cannot see the reward, since he knows from experience that he will only be rewarded when he can see the reward. Experienced trainers will hide the reward from the dog, and only produce the reward once the dog has already complied with the command. The goal is to produce a dog who will perform even on occasions that the handler has no reward to offer, since the dog's training has taught him that the handler may have a reward even if the dog cannot see it.
Some trainers go through a process of teaching a puppy to strongly desire a particular toy, in order to make the toy a more powerful positive reinforcer for good behaviour. This process is called "building prey drive", and is commonly used in the training of Narcotics Detection and Police Service dogs. The goal is to produce a dog who will work independently for long periods of time, in the hopes of earning access to its special toy reward.

Punishments

Positive punishment is probably the consequence that is least used by modern dog trainers, as it must be used very carefully. A dog is generally only given this type of punishment if it is willfully disobeying the owner. Punishing a dog who does not understand what is being asked of him is not only unfair to the dog, but can make the dog a fearful or unwilling worker.
Punishments are administered only as appropriate for the dog's personality, age, and experience. A sharp 'No' works for many dogs, but some dogs even show signs of fear or anxiety with harsh verbal corrections. On the other hand, certain dogs with 'harder' temperaments may ignore a verbal reprimand, and may need a physical punishment such as a quick tug on a training collar. Trainers generally advise keeping hand contact with the dog to positive interactions; if hands are used to threaten or hurt, some dogs may begin to behave defensively when stroked or handled.
Punishment should only be used if the dog performs something unwanted and you catch the dog in the act or within a very short time of it. A dog who ate the remote in the morning, will not understand why it is being punished at night. Punishment avoidance techniques can be used to control the dog's behavior while unsupervised.

Avoiding punishment

Keeping a puppy on a leash in challenging situations or in his crate or pen when not closely supervised prevents the puppy from getting into situations that might otherwise invite an owner's harsh reaction (such as chewing up a favorite pair of shoes).
It is easy for them to disregard commands amongst the babble.
To reinforce the command, the dog always gets some kind of reward or reinforcement (praise and usually a treat or toy) when it performs the action correctly. This helps the dog to understand that he has done a good thing. It is important not to give treats every time, because the dog will only learn to complete a command when you have a treat in hand and will not be reliable when no treat is present.
Note that not all dogs are trained to voice command. Many working breeds of dog are not trained to a voice command at all; they are taught to obey a combination of whistles and hand signals. Deaf dogs are perfectly capable of learning to obey visual signals alone. Many obedience classes teach hand signals for common commands in addition to voice signals; these signals can be useful in quiet situations, at a distance, and in advanced obedience competitions.
The specific command words are not important, although common words in English include 'sit', 'down', 'come', and 'stay'. Short, clear words that are easily understood by other humans are generally recommended; that way, people will understand what a handler is telling his dog to do and other handlers have a good chance of controlling someone else's dog if necessary. In fact, dogs can learn commands in any language or other communications medium, including whistles, mouth sounds, hand gestures, and so forth.

Training tricks

Many dog owners teach their dogs tricks. This serves several purposes: it develops a stronger relationship between the dog and human, it provides entertainment, and it engages the dog's mind, which can help to alleviate problems caused by boredom. For example, the 'shake hands' trick involves the dog raising its paw and placing it into an outstretched hand. An example of a useful trick is teaching a dog to ring a bell to go outside. This helps prevent the stress placed on an owner when trying to recognize whether the dog needs to relieve itself. For more information, see clicker training or bridge and target training.
Many habits can come up with different dogs. Begging at dinner should not be seen. Don't pay attention to your dog at dinner time, and your dog will notice that you won't give them food.

Electronic training

One of the most controversial training methods involves using a remote collar, otherwise known as a "shock collar". Despite the name, no manufacturer refers to their product as a "shock collar". This term is used almost primarily by the detractors of the tool. It is commonly referred to as a "static correction".
As with other training methods, whether this tool is cruel or humane generally depends on the user. Modern remote collars have many different settings, ranging from so low that it is difficult to perceive the sensation at all, to uncomfortably or even painfully high. Which settings are used depends on the goal of the trainer for the particular dog.
There are several different ways to use an collar in training, depending on the goal of the exercise. The most common method is to use the collar as an operant conditioning tool to encourage rapid and reliable response to commands the dog has already learned, especially when the trainer is a substantial distance away from the dog. The collar is set at a fairly low level. When the command is given, the collar button is pressed either immediately or after a very short delay. As soon as the dog completes the command, the collar button is released. From the dog's perspective, the dog's own actions (performing the command or ignoring the command) turn the collar on and off. Once a dog forms negative associations with the training process itself, any further progress becomes quite difficult.
The collar can also be used as a classical conditioningtool. By pairing the aversive stimulus with another stimulus, a conditioned aversive stimulus is formed.
Remote collars can also be used for other purposes besides normal behavior modification. Some trainers use very low settings as a way of getting the attention of deaf dogs, when the dog is at a distance or not facing the handler. In this case, the stimulation is not used as a punishment to modify behavior, but as a substitute for verbally calling the dog's name. Many newer collars include a vibrate feature (like a cell phone vibrator) or an audio pager which can be used for this purpose. These features can be classically associated with the "come" command so the dog can be called back to the handler from a great distance without verbal communication.
Remote collar training is especially popular for working dogs involved in retrieving, search and rescue, and other activities where the dog is off-leash and far from the handler. The collar is very useful in these circumstances because it can completely replace the use of a leash in the training process, allowing the handler to work from a long distance while still delivering instant feedback to the dog. This type of long-distance obedience training is normally quite difficult to achieve, but becomes much easier with the collar. The collar can also function as an "emergency stop button" for an off-leash working dog who may be tempted to wander into traffic, cacti, skunks, or other danger -- though this is purely a backup and should not be relied upon as a substitute for solid obedience training.

Pros

Supporters of electronic training devices believe that the highly effective training device can help save the eighty percent of dogs relinquished to shelters because of behavioral problems.
Pro-electronic training activists believe that the public is misinformed about the actual strength of the static pulses. Most collars deliver between 0.000005 to 0.0003 joules compared to a human muscle stimulation machine delivering 6.0 joules.
More information on pro-electronic training can be found at: http://trainmypet.net

Cons

Anti-electronic training activists protest against the use of electronic training devices believing that static correction is inhumane.
Anti-electronic training campaigns highlight the danger of static stimulation in the hands of irresponsible pet owners resulting in an aggressive or severely stressed animal.
Although the static current is not high enough to burn an animal, a collar that is neglectfully cared for can cause painful necrosis on the neck due to collars being too tight or left on the animal too long.

Teething

At anywhere from three to six months of age, a puppy begins to get its adult set of teeth. This period can be quite painful and many owners do not recognize the natural need to chew. By providing specific chew toys designed to ease the pain of teething (such as a frozen nylon bone), attention can be diverted from table legs and other furniture. Many people also use a bad-tasting, bad-smelling spray on favorite items, such as shoes, furniture, or even wallpaper, to discourage chewing. Bitter apple is a commonly used spray, but there are several commercial sprays available. Different sprays work better for different applications, owners, or puppies.

Recommended Training Methods

The following are recommended principles to achieve successful dog training.
• All dog training must be founded upon educating the dog, that is, developing instincts and drawing out accidental and acquired habits.
• Situations and contacts must be interpreted entirely from the dog's reactions and abilities, and not the human's.
• The dog is not to be fooled. It has a sense of humiliation as well as a sense of pride. If the dog has been taught to do certain acts, do not give it the command and then trifle with it. At all times you must let the dog see what you are doing. Always is the dog to understand that when you say certain things, it is to do certain things.
• Success must be at the completion of an act of training. The dog is to understand that at the end, a certain thing will take place. For instance, if it is tracking, it must find the person tracked.
• Commands always should be given in the same words and with the same tone of voice and speed of speaking.
• Anticipate the dog's actions. Think ahead of time and give your command before the dog acts or moves.
• If the dog goes one step wrongly, do not repeat this step but return at the beginning, for the dog must be taught to consider only successful acts in their entirety.
• Reward or punishment should follow quickly after every act. To punish a dog at any other time than instantly after the wrong act is cruelty rather than a part of training, for the dog does not connect the punishment to the act.
• The dog has a single-track mind. Teach one specific thing at a time. This does not mean that a training period cannot include a half-dozen different tasks.
• Give the dog a moment's time for carrying out your command. To demand instant obedience is to confuse the dog.
• Have patience. The dog is not a human being.
• Develop a bond. All future training depends upon this.
• Remember that a dog cannot ask questions, neither can it understand all you say. It knows only the words, the commands and the names you teach it.
• The success of a handler depends on being able to make a dog understand what it has to do and then to instill that into its brain until it becomes instinctive.
• Always use kindness.
• Be decisive, firm, and most of all, be sure that you know exactly what you want and how it should be done.
• Never try to teach a dog anything until you yourself have a thorough knowledge of how to teach it, and a clear mental picture of each stage.
• As far as possible, always have your dog with you. You cannot train it all the time, but it will become accustomed to your actions, words, and surroundings which will help to make the training easier.
• Never allow other people to pet and fuss over your dog unnecessarily. You are the dog's handler and it must look to you for everything.
• Your first thought is your dog.
• You must always finish a training period on a good note. Never leave off if the dog has done something wrong. Correction is essential.
• Never put your dog away for the night with a cross word. End the training period on a happy note and see that the dog has mastered the obstacle - and knows that it has done so - before you "good night".
• Do not punish the dog while you are angry or lack control of yourself.
• Do not lose your temper while training the dog. If you do, the dog will lose some of its respect for you.
• Do not chase the dog to catch it; it must come to you or follow after you.
• Do not coax the dog to you and then turn upon it with punishment. You will regret the deception.
• Do not nag the dog; do not give orders to it constantly; do not pester it with your shoutings.
• Do not punish the dog for failure to obey unless you are certain that it understood fully what you commanded.
• Do not praise the dog for doing a certain act, then at a later time, scold it for doing the same act.
• Do not permit anyone to give commands to the dog while you are training it

Specialized training

Dogs are also trained for specific purposes, including:

★ Detection dogs

★ Assistance dogs

★ Herding dogs, livestock guardian dogs, and sheep dogs

★ Hunting dogs

★ Police dogs

★ Rescue dogs

★ Schutzhund German for "protection dog". There are three disciplines the dog must achieve (tracking, obedience, and personal protection).

Guard animals

Due to their natural social structure — which is territorial and protective of companions — even companion animals will exhibit some form of alert behaviors toward intruders. However true guard dogs and police dogs are dedicated animals in the sense that they are not simultaneously intended to be companion animals.
Guard dogs are defined as canines who either by training, or by instinct, protect either property, persons or objects. A well-trained guard dog protects person, property or objects on command and "turns-off" on command as well. Properly trained animals will guard on command and then when commanded to "out" will approach and accept in a friendly manner those that may have attempted to gain entry, cause harm or steal protected items.
There are several methods regarding the training of guard animals, western (e.g. Koehler Method) and eastern, and certain breeds are typically used in this capacity. The Schutzhund method also contains a portion relating to protection, and generally means the animal will bite on command, and will not release until commanded.
In some circumstances, when dogs are left alone to guard property it may be necessary to train them to not eat treats or other food items offered by unknown persons. Positive punishment can include electric shocks related to attempting to eat food other than in the designated food receptacle, or from a designated individual or individuals.

Service animals

Assistance dogs, such as guide and hearing dogs, are carefully trained to utilize both their sensory skills and the protective instincts of dogs (as pack animals) to bond with a human and help that person to offset a disability in daily life. The use of assistance dogs is an ever-growing field, with wide a range of special adaptations.

References

★ Beaver, Bonnie V. (1999) Canine Behavior: A Guide for Veterinarians. W. B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

★ Lindsay, Steven R. (2000). Handbook of Applied Dog Training and Behavior, vol. 1: adaptation and learning. Iowa State Press, Ames, Iowa.

★ Scott, John Paul and Fuller John L. (1965) Genetics and the Social Behavior of the Dog. University of Chicago Press, Chicago

★ Serpell, James (1995). The Domestic Dog: Its evolution, behavior, and interactions with people. Cambridge University Press, New York, New York

★ RCMP Police Dog Training Center (http://www.rcmp.ca/pds/dog/trng1_e.htm)

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