:''This article is about the 1st century Roman Emperor. For the 3rd century usurper, see
Domitianus. For another usurper (296-297) based in Egypt, see
Domitius Domitianus.''
'Titus Flavius Domitianus' (
24 October 51 –
18 September 96), commonly known as 'Domitian', was a
Roman Emperor of the ''
gens Flavia''.
Domitianus was a member of the
Flavian Dynasty, being the son of
Vespasian, by his wife Domitilla, and brother of
Titus, whom he succeeded on 14 October,
81.
Life
Early life
Domitian was born in Rome while his father was still a politician and military commander. He received the education of a young man of the privileged
senatorial class. He studied rhetoric and literature, publishing some of his writings on law and administration. In his biography
Suetonius describes him as a learned and educated adolescent, with elegant conversation. Unlike his brother, Titus, who was much older, Domitian did not join his father's campaigns in the
African provinces and Judea.
During the
Year of the Four Emperors (
69), Domitian assumed a cautious, discreet position, but moved immediately to the imperial palace once his father was proclaimed emperor. He was the representative of the Flavius family in the senate prior to Vespasian and Titus' arrival in Rome. With the rise to power of his father, Domitian grew bolder.
In
70 he managed to force the divorce of
Domitia Longina in order to marry her. Lucius Aelius Lamia, her husband, could not prevent the prince's will, and so Domitia became daughter in law of the emperor. Despite its initial recklessness, the alliance was very prestigious for both sides. Domitia Longina was the younger daughter of general
Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, one of the victims of
Nero's terror, remembered as a worthy commander and a honoured politician. They had a son in 71 and a daughter in 74, but both died young. The marriage was far from being traditional: Domitian was a notorious womaniser and his wife was not jealous. Some sources refer that she would join Domitian in his escapades with his mistresses.
As a second son, Domitian was spared from responsibilities. He held several honorary
consulships and several priesthoods but no office with ''
imperium''. During the reign of his brother Titus, his situation remained essentially the same, since nobody saw him as future emperor. But Domitian certainly had his ambitions. When Titus was dying, he managed to be hailed as his successor by securing the
Praetorian Guard's support.
As emperor
As an administrator, Domitian soon proved to be a disaster. The economy first came to a halt and then went into recession, forcing him to heavily devalue the
denarius (silver currency). To further compensate for the economic situation, taxes were raised and discontent soon followed. Due to his love of the arts and to woo the population, Domitian invested large sums in the reconstruction and embellishment of the city, still suffering the effects of the
great fire of Rome of 64 and the civil war of 69. Around fifty new buildings were erected and restored, including the
Temple of Jupiter on the
Capitoline Hill and a palace in the
Palatine Hill.
Denarius of Domitian.
In
85, Domitian nominated himself perpetual
censor, the office which held the task of supervising Roman morals and conduct, a task he could hardly apply to himself. By
83, his own marriage was in rupture with continuous infidelities and scandals on both sides. In this year, Domitia Longina was caught with her lover, the actor
Paris. The man was executed and the empress was exiled after a hasty divorce. In the next year he developed a passion for his niece
Julia Flavia (daughter of Titus) and, as in his first marriage, he kidnapped the girl by dismissing her husband. Julia Flavia died in
91 during an
abortion, being deified afterwards. After this, Domitia Longina was recalled to the palace as Roman empress, despite the fact that Domitian never remarried her.
Domitian's greatest passions were the arts and the games. He implemented the
Capitoline Games in
86. Like the
Olympic Games, they were to be held every four years and included athletic displays, chariot races, but also oratory, music and acting competitions. The Emperor himself supported the travels of competitors from the whole empire and attributed the prizes. He was also very fond of
gladiator shows and added important innovations like female and dwarf gladiator fights.
Domitian was not gifted as a military commander, due to his education in Rome, away from the
legions. Probably because of this, the emperor limited Roman military enterprises during his reign. He claimed several
Roman triumphs, namely over the
Chatti and in Britain, but they were only propaganda manoeuvres, since these wars were still being fought. Nevertheless, several campaigns were fought during his reign, especially in the
Danube frontier against
Decebalus, king of
Dacians. Domitian also founded
Legio I ''Minervia'' in 82, to fight against Chatti.
According to many historians,
Jews and
Christians were heavily persecuted toward the end of Domitian's reign.
[1] The
Book of Revelation is thought by many scholars to have been written during Domitian's reign as a reaction to persecution.
[Brown, Raymond E. ''An Introduction to the New Testament'', pp. 805-809. ISBN 0-385-24767-2.][2] Other historians, however, have maintained that there was little or no persecution of Christians during Domitian's time.
[3][4][5] There is no historical consensus on the matter.
[ The emperor is known, however, to have developed a paranoid fear of persecution that led him to kill or execute several members of the senatorial and equestrian orders. At least twenty political and ideological opponents were executed, including his cousin, the Consul Flavius Clemens.][ Domitian disliked aristocrats and had no fear of showing it, withdrawing every decision-making power from the Senate. He signed documents "God and Lord"[6], and coins of the period represent him enthroned as "father of the gods".]
Domitian was murdered in September 96, in a plot organized by his enemies in the Senate, Stephanus (the steward of the deceased Julia Flavia), members of the Praetorian Guard and empress Domitia Longina. The emperor believed that, according to an astrological prediction, he would die around noon. Therefore, he was always restless during this time of the day. On his last day, Domitian was feeling disturbed and asked a servant boy several times what time it was. The boy, included in the plot, lied, saying that it was much later. More at ease, the emperor went to his desk to sign some decrees, where he was stabbed eight times by Stephanus.
Domitian was succeeded by Nerva (by appointment of the senate). The custom of ''damnatio memoriae'' was issued on Domitian, ordering his obliteration from all public records.[7] Domitian is the only known emperor to have officially received a ''damnatio memoriae'', though others may have received ''de facto'' ones. Many of the images that survive of Domitian's successor Nerva were actually once Domitian but converted to Nerva after the ''damnatio'' was issued. Nearly all surviving images of Domitian were found in the provinces.
Ancient sources on Domitian
By 'poets':
★ Statius wrote four poems that contained information about Domitian's life.
★ Martial's work contains references and epigrams to Domitian.
From 'primary sources':
Juvenal, Tacitus and Suetonius authored information about the reign of Domitian after it ended. This would have been impolitic.
★ Tacitus, a historian, spoke from personal knowledge when he wrote his Histories on the arc of the Flavian dynasty. Unfortunately, this work is lost.
★ Juvenal, an author of Roman satire, depicted Domitian and his court as corrupt, violent, and unjust.
★ Suetonius wrote Lives of the Twelve Caesars. This is the most extensive ancient discussion of the life of the emperor that is preserved.
In later literature
★ Chief character in ''The Roman Actor'' by Philip Massinger
★ In Oscar Wilde's dialogue "The Decay of Lying" a character describes his club: "The Tired Hedonists, of course. It is a club to which I belong. We are supposed to wear faded roses in our button holes when we meet, and to have a sort of cult for Domitian."
★ An important character in Donna Gillespie's novel ''The Light Bearer''
Notes
1. Smallwood, E.M. ''Classical Philology 51'', 1956.
2. Irenaeus, ''Against Heresies'', c.170 C.E.
3. Merrill, E.T. ''Essays in Early Christian History'' (London:Macmillan, 1924).
4. Willborn, L.L. ''Biblical Research 29'' (1984).
5. Thompson, L.L. ''The Book of Revelation: Apocalypse and Empire'' (New York: Oxford, 1990).
6. Suetonius, ''Lives of the Twelve Caesars: Domitian'' 8.15
7. Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'' Life of Domitian 23
Bibliography
Primary sources
★ ★ class=wikiexternal target=_blank>.html Suetonius, ''The lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Domitian, Latin text with English translation
★ ★ class=wikiexternal target=_blank>.html Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' Book 67, English translation
★ , English translation
Secondary material
★ Titus Flavius Domitianus (A.D. 81-96)
★ Essai sur le règne de l'empereur Domitien, , Stéphane, Gsell, E. Thorin, 1894,
★ The Emperor Domitian, , Brian W., Jones, Routledge, 1992,
★ Domitian: Tragic Tyrant, , Pat, Southern, Routledge, 1997,
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