EASTERN RELIGION
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(Redirected from Eastern religions)
'Eastern religion' is a group of religions originating in India, China, Japan and Southeast Asia. This includes the Tao and Dharmic faiths, as well as animistic indigenous religions. As it originated in the Near East, in modern-day Saudi Arabia, Islam is sometimes considered an Eastern religion. The use of this classification is waning due to Islam's place among the Abrahamic religions and Islamic academic abandonment of archaic Orientalism.
Eastern religions tend to view the divine as imminent, internal and integral to the adherent. Eastern thought is generally nontheistic. While many of these faiths feature polytheistic pantheons, ultimate reality is often seen as beyond the gods, but internal to every living being. While many Western observers attempt to distinguish between philosophies and religions, this is a distinction that does not exist in Eastern tradition.[1]
Religions originating on the Indian subcontinent include Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.[2] The theologies and philosophies of these religions have several concepts in common, such as ''dharma'' "natural law" or "duty", ''moksha'' "liberation" or ''yoga'' "asceticism".
Main articles: Hinduism
.
Hinduism originated on the Indian subcontinent. It is considered by some to be the world's oldest extant religion. Hinduism contains a vast body of scripture divided as revealed and remembered expounding on dharma, or religious living. Hindus consider the ''Vedas'' and the ''Upanishads'' as being among the foremost in authority, importance and antiquity. The '''', a treatise excerpted from the '', is sometimes called a summary of the spiritual teachings of the ''Vedas''. It is difficult to identify any universal belief or practice in Hinduism, although prominent themes include: ''Dharma'', ''Samsara'', ''Karma'', and ''Moksha''. Hinduism is sometimes called a polytheistic religion, but this is an oversimplification. Hinduism includes a diverse collection of schools whose beliefs span monotheism, polytheism, pantheism, monism and even atheism. For instance, the Advaita Vedanta school holds that there is only one causal entity (Brahman), which manifests itself to humans in multiple forms, whereas traditions such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism worship Vishnu and Shiva in a monotheistic sense. A number of scholars even consider the Samkhya school of thought to have atheistic leanings.[3]
Main articles: Buddhism
Buddhism is a dharmic, non-theistic religion and philosophy. Buddhism was founded around the fifth century BCE by Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, with the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path as its central principles. According to the scriptures, the Four Noble Truths were revealed by the Buddha in his first sermon after attaining enlightenment. The schools of Buddhism are typically divided into Theravada and Mahayana. In academic circles, Mahayana is further divided into East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism. Buddhism teaches that someone who becomes enlightened without instruction is a buddha. The primary goal of Buddhism is the liberation of the practitioner from samsara. Buddhists hold this to be the solution to the problem of suffering.
Main articles: Jainism
Jainism is the religion of the followers of Mahavir. He is said to be the 24th tirthankara, or the 24th in a line of teachers espousing Jain principles. Jains reject the Vedas and highlight the practice of austerity. Jain faith states that the jiva, or soul, can escape the cycle of rebirth and death through strict ethical behavior. When nothing remains but the purity of the jiva, that person is called a jina, or winner, which is the origin of the term Jain. Karma is viewed as an accumulation that burdens the soul, causing attachment and suffering. Ahimsa, or non-violence, is central to Jain faith and practice. It is interpreted very strictly as prohibiting all forms of harm to other living beings. Due to this, Jainism requires a strict vegetarian lifestyle. ''Ahimsa'' also applies to speaking, as one's words can cause harm and suffering.[4]
Main articles: Sikhism
Sikhism is a religion which began in Northern India. It is founded on the teachings of Guru Nanak Dev and the nine gurus that followed. Salvation is tied to faith and a relationship with God. God is omnipresent and infinite. Sikhs believe that prior to creation, all that existed was God and his ''hukam'', or will. God has no gender in Sikhism. Sikhs also believe that there are many worlds on which God has created life. The Ä€di Granth and GurÅ« Granth SÄhib are the central scriptures intended to preserve hymns and the teachings of the gurus. Rituals, religious ceremonies or empty worship are considered of little use and Sikhs are discouraged from fasting or going on pilgrimages. During later periods, especially those of increased organization within the faith, some ceremonies and rites did arise. Recitation of scripture is a central feature of Sikh practice. For example, the recitation of ''ardÄs'' is customary for Sikhs attending a temple.
The group of East Asian religions or philosophies share the concept of Tao. They may be considered as forming a group within world religions[5] comparable to to the "Abrahamic" or "Dharmic" groups. The "Taoic" faiths claim at least 500 million members worldwide.[6]
Main articles: Taoism
Taoism is a variety of related religious and philosophical traditions. Categorization of Taoist sects and movements is very controversial. Taoist propriety and ethics places an emphasis on the Three Jewels of the Tao; love, moderation, humility. Taoist theology focuses on doctrines of wu wei ("non-action"), spontaneity, humanism, relativism and emptiness.[7]
Most traditional Chinese Taoists are polytheistic. There are disagreements regarding the proper composition of this pantheon. Popular Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as the head deity. Intellectual, or "elite", Taoism usually presents Laozi and the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon. Nature and ancestor spirits are common in popular Taoism. But this sort of shamanism is eschewed for an emphasis on internal alchemy among the "elite" Taoists. Tao itself is rarely an object of worship, being treated more like the Central Asian concept of atman.[8]
Main articles: Shinto
Shinto is an animistic folk religion from Japan. Shinto literally means "the way of the gods". Shinto and Asian Buddhism are inextricably linked in Japan. Many Japanese Shintoists also identify themselves as Buddhists. Japanese Pure Land Buddhism is deeply tied with the Shinto faith. Shinto practitioners commonly affirm tradition, family, nature, cleanliness and ritual observation as core values. Taoic influence is significant in their beliefs about nature and self-mastery.[9]
Ritual cleanliness is a central part of Shinto life. Shrines have a significant place in Shintoism, reflecting the animistic veneration of the kami. "Folk", or "popular", Shinto places an emphasis on shamanism, particularly divination, spirit possession and faith healing. "Sect" Shinto is a diverse group including mountain-worshippers and Confucian Shintoists.[10]
Main articles: Confucianism
Confucianism is a complex system of moral, social, political, and religious thought, influential in the history of East Asia. It is commonly associated with legalism but it rejects legalism for ritualism. It also endorses meritocracy as the ideal of nobility. Confucianism has a complicated system governing duties and etiquette in relationships. Confucian ethics focus on familial duty, loyalty and humaneness.[11]
Confucianism recognizes the existence of animistic spirits, ghosts and deities. It advocates paying them proper respect, but paradoxically also encourages avoiding them. Confucian thought is notable as the framework upon which the syncretic Neo-Confucianism was built.[12]
Main articles: Mahayana, Vajrayana, Zen, Chinese Buddhism, Korean Buddhism, Buddhism in Japan, Buddhism in Vietnam,
Based on a long traditional line of philosophical understanding as to the importance of knowledge, the guru is seen in these religions as a sacred conduit, or a way to self-realization. The importance of finding a true guru is described in the scriptures and teachings of religions in which a guru plays a role.
: ''Main lists: List of basic religious topics and List of religious topics''
★ Comparative religion
★ Chinese folk religion
★ Folk religion
1. Morgan (2001). Pp 9-11.
2. York (2005). Pg 166.
3. Bhaskarananda (1994).
Weightman (1997). Pg 263.
4. Flood (1996). Pg 76.
Fisher (1997). Pp 116-117.
Rausch & Key (1993).
5. Sharot (2001). Pp 71-72, 75-76.
6. Religious population statistics. Source: adherents.com. These statistics are limited and do not reflect the full population of Taoic adherents due to complexities in definition and polling.
7. Leaman (1999). Pg 111.
Slingerland (2003).
Sharot (2001). Pg 78.
8. Segal (2006). Pg 50.
Maspero (1981). Pg 41.
LaFargue (1994). Pg 283.
9. Pilgrim (1999). Pg 1.
Sharot (2001). Pp. 161-162.
Ono (2004). Pp 97-99, 103-104.
10. Ono (2004). Pp 12, 51-52, 108.
Markham (2001). Pp 304-306.
11. Smart (2000). Pp 66.
Yao (2000). pp 191-192
De Bary & Tu (1998). Pg 149.
12. Sharot (2001). Pp 46, 85.
Huang (1999). Pg 5.
★ De Bary, William Theodore & Tu, Weiming. ''Confucianism and Human Rights''. Columbia University Press (1998). ISBN 0231109369.
★ Fisher, Mary Pat. ''Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths''. I.B. Taurus (1997). ISBN 1860641482.
★ Flood, Gavin D. ''An Introduction to Hinduism''. Cambridge University Press (1996). ISBN 0521433045.
★ Huang, Siu-chi. ''Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods''. Greenwood Press (1999). ISBN 031326449X.
★ Leaman, Oliver. ''Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy''. Routledge (1999). ISBN 0415173620.
★ LaFargue, Michael. ''Tao and Method: A Reasoned Approach to the Tao Te Ching''. SUNY Press (1994). ISBN 0791416011.
★ Markham, Ian S. & Ruparell, Tinu. ''Encountering Religion: an introduction to the religions of the world''. Blackwell Publishing (2001). ISBN 0631206744.
★ Maspero, Henri. Translated by Frank A. Kierman, Jr. ''Taoism and Chinese Religion''. University of Massachusetts (1981).
★ Morgan, Diane. ''The Best Guide to Eastern Philosophy and Religion''. St. Martin's Griffin (2001). ISBN 1580631975.
★ Ono, Sakyo. ''Shinto: The Kami Way''. Tuttle Publishing (2004). ISBN 0804835578.
★ Pilgrim, Richard B. ''Buddhism and the Arts of Japan''. Columbia University Press (1999). ISBN 0231113471.
★ Rausch, Thomas P. & Chapple, Christopher Key. ''The College Student's Introduction to Theology''. Liturgical Press (1993). ISBN 0814658415.
★ Segal, Robert Alan. ''The Blackwell Companion to the Study of Religion''. Blackwell Publishing (2006). ISBN 0631232168.
★ Sharot, Stephen. ''A Comparative Sociology of World Religions: virtuosos, priests, and popular religion''. NYU Press (2001). ISBN 0814798055.
★ Slingerland, Edward Gilman. ''Effortless Action: Wu-Wei as Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in Early China''. Oxford University Press (2003). ISBN 0195138996.
★ Smart, Ninian. ''World Philosophies''. Routledge UK (2000). ISBN 0415228522.
★ Swami Bhaskarananda. ''The Essentials of Hinduism''. Viveka Press (1994). ISBN 1884852025.
★ Weightman, Simon. Hinnells, John (ed). ''Handbook of Living Religions''. Penguin Books (1997). ISBN 0140514805.
★ Yao, Xinzhong. ''An Introduction to Confucianism''. Cambridge University Press (2000). ISBN 0521644305.
★ York, Michael. ''Pagan Theology: Paganism as a World Religion.'' NYU Press (2005). ISBN 0814797083.
'Eastern religion' is a group of religions originating in India, China, Japan and Southeast Asia. This includes the Tao and Dharmic faiths, as well as animistic indigenous religions. As it originated in the Near East, in modern-day Saudi Arabia, Islam is sometimes considered an Eastern religion. The use of this classification is waning due to Islam's place among the Abrahamic religions and Islamic academic abandonment of archaic Orientalism.
Eastern religions tend to view the divine as imminent, internal and integral to the adherent. Eastern thought is generally nontheistic. While many of these faiths feature polytheistic pantheons, ultimate reality is often seen as beyond the gods, but internal to every living being. While many Western observers attempt to distinguish between philosophies and religions, this is a distinction that does not exist in Eastern tradition.[1]
| Contents |
| Indian religions |
| Hinduism |
| Buddhism |
| Jainism |
| Sikhism |
| Far Eastern traditions |
| Taoism |
| Shinto |
| Confucianism |
| Far Eastern Buddhism |
| The role of the guru |
| See also |
| Notes |
| References |
Indian religions
Religions originating on the Indian subcontinent include Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.[2] The theologies and philosophies of these religions have several concepts in common, such as ''dharma'' "natural law" or "duty", ''moksha'' "liberation" or ''yoga'' "asceticism".
Hinduism
Main articles: Hinduism
OM, a sacred syllable and a quintessential symbol of Hinduism
Hinduism originated on the Indian subcontinent. It is considered by some to be the world's oldest extant religion. Hinduism contains a vast body of scripture divided as revealed and remembered expounding on dharma, or religious living. Hindus consider the ''Vedas'' and the ''Upanishads'' as being among the foremost in authority, importance and antiquity. The '''', a treatise excerpted from the '', is sometimes called a summary of the spiritual teachings of the ''Vedas''. It is difficult to identify any universal belief or practice in Hinduism, although prominent themes include: ''Dharma'', ''Samsara'', ''Karma'', and ''Moksha''. Hinduism is sometimes called a polytheistic religion, but this is an oversimplification. Hinduism includes a diverse collection of schools whose beliefs span monotheism, polytheism, pantheism, monism and even atheism. For instance, the Advaita Vedanta school holds that there is only one causal entity (Brahman), which manifests itself to humans in multiple forms, whereas traditions such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism worship Vishnu and Shiva in a monotheistic sense. A number of scholars even consider the Samkhya school of thought to have atheistic leanings.[3]
Buddhism
The Tian Tan Buddha statue in Hong Kong.
Main articles: Buddhism
Buddhism is a dharmic, non-theistic religion and philosophy. Buddhism was founded around the fifth century BCE by Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, with the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path as its central principles. According to the scriptures, the Four Noble Truths were revealed by the Buddha in his first sermon after attaining enlightenment. The schools of Buddhism are typically divided into Theravada and Mahayana. In academic circles, Mahayana is further divided into East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism. Buddhism teaches that someone who becomes enlightened without instruction is a buddha. The primary goal of Buddhism is the liberation of the practitioner from samsara. Buddhists hold this to be the solution to the problem of suffering.
Jainism
Main articles: Jainism
Jainism is the religion of the followers of Mahavir. He is said to be the 24th tirthankara, or the 24th in a line of teachers espousing Jain principles. Jains reject the Vedas and highlight the practice of austerity. Jain faith states that the jiva, or soul, can escape the cycle of rebirth and death through strict ethical behavior. When nothing remains but the purity of the jiva, that person is called a jina, or winner, which is the origin of the term Jain. Karma is viewed as an accumulation that burdens the soul, causing attachment and suffering. Ahimsa, or non-violence, is central to Jain faith and practice. It is interpreted very strictly as prohibiting all forms of harm to other living beings. Due to this, Jainism requires a strict vegetarian lifestyle. ''Ahimsa'' also applies to speaking, as one's words can cause harm and suffering.[4]
Sikhism
Main articles: Sikhism
Sikhism is a religion which began in Northern India. It is founded on the teachings of Guru Nanak Dev and the nine gurus that followed. Salvation is tied to faith and a relationship with God. God is omnipresent and infinite. Sikhs believe that prior to creation, all that existed was God and his ''hukam'', or will. God has no gender in Sikhism. Sikhs also believe that there are many worlds on which God has created life. The Ä€di Granth and GurÅ« Granth SÄhib are the central scriptures intended to preserve hymns and the teachings of the gurus. Rituals, religious ceremonies or empty worship are considered of little use and Sikhs are discouraged from fasting or going on pilgrimages. During later periods, especially those of increased organization within the faith, some ceremonies and rites did arise. Recitation of scripture is a central feature of Sikh practice. For example, the recitation of ''ardÄs'' is customary for Sikhs attending a temple.
Far Eastern traditions
The group of East Asian religions or philosophies share the concept of Tao. They may be considered as forming a group within world religions[5] comparable to to the "Abrahamic" or "Dharmic" groups. The "Taoic" faiths claim at least 500 million members worldwide.[6]
A Taoist priestess performing ritual.
Taoism
Main articles: Taoism
Taoism is a variety of related religious and philosophical traditions. Categorization of Taoist sects and movements is very controversial. Taoist propriety and ethics places an emphasis on the Three Jewels of the Tao; love, moderation, humility. Taoist theology focuses on doctrines of wu wei ("non-action"), spontaneity, humanism, relativism and emptiness.[7]
Most traditional Chinese Taoists are polytheistic. There are disagreements regarding the proper composition of this pantheon. Popular Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as the head deity. Intellectual, or "elite", Taoism usually presents Laozi and the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon. Nature and ancestor spirits are common in popular Taoism. But this sort of shamanism is eschewed for an emphasis on internal alchemy among the "elite" Taoists. Tao itself is rarely an object of worship, being treated more like the Central Asian concept of atman.[8]
Shinto
A Shinto priest kneeling before a shrine.
Main articles: Shinto
Shinto is an animistic folk religion from Japan. Shinto literally means "the way of the gods". Shinto and Asian Buddhism are inextricably linked in Japan. Many Japanese Shintoists also identify themselves as Buddhists. Japanese Pure Land Buddhism is deeply tied with the Shinto faith. Shinto practitioners commonly affirm tradition, family, nature, cleanliness and ritual observation as core values. Taoic influence is significant in their beliefs about nature and self-mastery.[9]
Ritual cleanliness is a central part of Shinto life. Shrines have a significant place in Shintoism, reflecting the animistic veneration of the kami. "Folk", or "popular", Shinto places an emphasis on shamanism, particularly divination, spirit possession and faith healing. "Sect" Shinto is a diverse group including mountain-worshippers and Confucian Shintoists.[10]
Confucianism
Main articles: Confucianism
Confucianism is a complex system of moral, social, political, and religious thought, influential in the history of East Asia. It is commonly associated with legalism but it rejects legalism for ritualism. It also endorses meritocracy as the ideal of nobility. Confucianism has a complicated system governing duties and etiquette in relationships. Confucian ethics focus on familial duty, loyalty and humaneness.[11]
Confucianism recognizes the existence of animistic spirits, ghosts and deities. It advocates paying them proper respect, but paradoxically also encourages avoiding them. Confucian thought is notable as the framework upon which the syncretic Neo-Confucianism was built.[12]
Far Eastern Buddhism
Main articles: Mahayana, Vajrayana, Zen, Chinese Buddhism, Korean Buddhism, Buddhism in Japan, Buddhism in Vietnam,
The role of the guru
Based on a long traditional line of philosophical understanding as to the importance of knowledge, the guru is seen in these religions as a sacred conduit, or a way to self-realization. The importance of finding a true guru is described in the scriptures and teachings of religions in which a guru plays a role.
See also
: ''Main lists: List of basic religious topics and List of religious topics''
★ Comparative religion
★ Chinese folk religion
★ Folk religion
Notes
1. Morgan (2001). Pp 9-11.
2. York (2005). Pg 166.
3. Bhaskarananda (1994).
Weightman (1997). Pg 263.
4. Flood (1996). Pg 76.
Fisher (1997). Pp 116-117.
Rausch & Key (1993).
5. Sharot (2001). Pp 71-72, 75-76.
6. Religious population statistics. Source: adherents.com. These statistics are limited and do not reflect the full population of Taoic adherents due to complexities in definition and polling.
7. Leaman (1999). Pg 111.
Slingerland (2003).
Sharot (2001). Pg 78.
8. Segal (2006). Pg 50.
Maspero (1981). Pg 41.
LaFargue (1994). Pg 283.
9. Pilgrim (1999). Pg 1.
Sharot (2001). Pp. 161-162.
Ono (2004). Pp 97-99, 103-104.
10. Ono (2004). Pp 12, 51-52, 108.
Markham (2001). Pp 304-306.
11. Smart (2000). Pp 66.
Yao (2000). pp 191-192
De Bary & Tu (1998). Pg 149.
12. Sharot (2001). Pp 46, 85.
Huang (1999). Pg 5.
References
★ De Bary, William Theodore & Tu, Weiming. ''Confucianism and Human Rights''. Columbia University Press (1998). ISBN 0231109369.
★ Fisher, Mary Pat. ''Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths''. I.B. Taurus (1997). ISBN 1860641482.
★ Flood, Gavin D. ''An Introduction to Hinduism''. Cambridge University Press (1996). ISBN 0521433045.
★ Huang, Siu-chi. ''Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods''. Greenwood Press (1999). ISBN 031326449X.
★ Leaman, Oliver. ''Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy''. Routledge (1999). ISBN 0415173620.
★ LaFargue, Michael. ''Tao and Method: A Reasoned Approach to the Tao Te Ching''. SUNY Press (1994). ISBN 0791416011.
★ Markham, Ian S. & Ruparell, Tinu. ''Encountering Religion: an introduction to the religions of the world''. Blackwell Publishing (2001). ISBN 0631206744.
★ Maspero, Henri. Translated by Frank A. Kierman, Jr. ''Taoism and Chinese Religion''. University of Massachusetts (1981).
★ Morgan, Diane. ''The Best Guide to Eastern Philosophy and Religion''. St. Martin's Griffin (2001). ISBN 1580631975.
★ Ono, Sakyo. ''Shinto: The Kami Way''. Tuttle Publishing (2004). ISBN 0804835578.
★ Pilgrim, Richard B. ''Buddhism and the Arts of Japan''. Columbia University Press (1999). ISBN 0231113471.
★ Rausch, Thomas P. & Chapple, Christopher Key. ''The College Student's Introduction to Theology''. Liturgical Press (1993). ISBN 0814658415.
★ Segal, Robert Alan. ''The Blackwell Companion to the Study of Religion''. Blackwell Publishing (2006). ISBN 0631232168.
★ Sharot, Stephen. ''A Comparative Sociology of World Religions: virtuosos, priests, and popular religion''. NYU Press (2001). ISBN 0814798055.
★ Slingerland, Edward Gilman. ''Effortless Action: Wu-Wei as Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in Early China''. Oxford University Press (2003). ISBN 0195138996.
★ Smart, Ninian. ''World Philosophies''. Routledge UK (2000). ISBN 0415228522.
★ Swami Bhaskarananda. ''The Essentials of Hinduism''. Viveka Press (1994). ISBN 1884852025.
★ Weightman, Simon. Hinnells, John (ed). ''Handbook of Living Religions''. Penguin Books (1997). ISBN 0140514805.
★ Yao, Xinzhong. ''An Introduction to Confucianism''. Cambridge University Press (2000). ISBN 0521644305.
★ York, Michael. ''Pagan Theology: Paganism as a World Religion.'' NYU Press (2005). ISBN 0814797083.
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