FABLE

A 'fable' is a brief, succinct story, in prose or verse, that features animals, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature which are anthropomorphized (given human qualities), and that illustrates a moral lesson (a "moral"), which may at the end be expressed explicitly in a pithy maxim.
A fable differs from a 'parable' in that the latter ''excludes'' animals, plants, inanimate objects, and forces of nature as actors that assume speech and other powers of humankind.
Usage has not always been so clearly distinguished. In the King James Version of the ''Bible'', the translators rendered "''μύθος''" ("''mythos''") as "fable" in the New Testament,^[1] in First and Second Timothy, Titus and First Peter.

Contents

Definitions

Characteristics

History

Classic fabulists

Modern fabulists

Notable fables

Notes

References

See also

External links

Definitions

The word "fable" comes from the Latin "''fabula''" ("a story"), from "''fari''" ("to speak").
Used in a pejorative sense, a "fable" may refer to a deliberately invented or falsified account. A ''non''-authorial person who, wittingly or not, tells "tall tales", may be termed a "confabulator". In its more general sense, though, the word "fable" refers simply to a genre of short stories designed to impart a moral lesson.
An author of fables is termed a 'fabulist', while the word "'fabulous'" means "pertaining to fables". A character referred to as "fabulous" (such as The Lone Ranger) simply means that he was fictional, in the traditional meaning of the word. In recent decades the word's metaphorical meanings have often been taken as literal. "Fabulous" has acquired a meaning equivalent to "outstanding".

Characteristics

Fables can be described as a didactic mode of literature. That is, whether a fable is handed down from generation to generation as oral literature or constructed by a literary tale-teller, its purpose is to teach a lesson or value, or to give sage advice. Fables also provide opportunities to laugh at human folly, when they provide examples of behavior to avoid rather than to emulate.
Fables frequently have animals as their central characters, and they are often given anthropomorphic characteristics, such as the ability to speak and to reason. For instance, medieval French ''fabliaux'' might feature Reynard the fox, a trickster figure, and offer a subtext mildly subversive of the feudal order of society. The ancient Aesop, too, had presented a wide range of animals as the protagonists of his short fables, including his famous tortoise and hare who engage in a race, and the fox who rejects grapes that are out of his reach as being sour. Similarly, the 18th-century Polish fabulist Ignacy Krasicki employs animals as the title actors in his verse fable, "The Lamb and the Wolves." In the same way, he uses plants in "The Violet and the Grass."
Personification may also be extended to things inanimate, as in Krasicki's "Bread and Sword." An example of personified forces of nature may be found in his "The Stream and the River."
Divine beings may also appear in fables as active agents in human life. For instance, ''Aesop's Fables'' feature most of the Greek pantheon, including Zeus and Hermes.

History

The fable is one of the most enduring forms of folk literature, spread abroad, modern researchers agree^[2] less by literary anthologies than by oral transmission. Fables can be found in the literature of almost every country. Fables that originated in India were carried into Persia and from there spread into Greece and the Western world from the fourth century BCE. The varying corpus denoted ''Aesopica'' or ''Aesop's Fables'' includes most of the best-known western fables, which are attributed to the legendary Aesop, supposed to have been a Greek slave of the 6th century BCE. When Babrius set down fables from the ''Aesopica'' in verse for a Hellenistic Prince "Alexander," he expressly stated at the head of Book II that this type of "myth" that Aesop had introduced to the "sons of the Hellenes" had been an invention of "Syrians" from the time of "Ninos" (personifying Nineveh to Greeks) and Belos ("ruler")^[3]. Several parallel animal fables in Sumerian and Akkadian are among those that E. Ebeling introduced to modern Western readers^[4]; there are comparable fables from Egypt's Middle Kingdom^[5], and Hebrew fables such as the "king of trees" in Book of Judges 9 and "the thistle and the cedar tree" in ''II Kings'' 14:9.^[6] Many other familiar ones include “The Crow and the Pitcher,” “The Hare and the Tortoise,” and “The Lion and the Mouse.”
Hundreds of fables were composed in ancient India during the first millennium BC, often as stories within frame stories. These included Vishnu Sarma's ''Panchatantra'', the ''Hitopadesha'', ''Vikram and The Vampire'', and Syntipas' ''Seven Wise Masters'', which were collections of fables that were later influential throughout the Old World. Earlier Indian epics such as Vyasa's ''Mahabharata'' and Valmiki's ''Ramayana'' also contained fables within the main story, often as side stories or back-story.
Epicharmus of Kos and Phormis are reported as having been among the first to invent comic fables.^[7]
Fables had a further long tradition through the Middle Ages, and became part of European literature. During the 17th century, the French fabulist Jean de La Fontaine (1621-1695) saw the soul of the fable in the 'moral' — a rule of behavior. Starting with the Aesopian pattern, La Fontaine set out to satirize the court, the church, the rising bourgeoisie, indeed the entire human scene of his time. La Fontaine's model was subsequently emulated by Poland's Ignacy Krasicki (1735-1801) and Russia's Ivan Krylov (1769-1844).
In modern times, the fable has been trivialized in children's books. Yet it has also been fully adapted to modern adult literature. For instance, James Thurber used the ancient style in his books, ''Fables for Our Time'' and ''The Beast in Me and Other Animals''. George Orwell's ''Animal Farm'' satirizes Stalinist Communism in particular, and totalitarianism in general, in the guise of animal fable.
Felix Salten's ''Bambi'' is a ''Bildungsroman'' — a story of a protagonist's coming-of-age — cast in the form of a fable.

Classic fabulists

★ Valmiki (ca. 6th century BCE), author of the Hindu epic ''Ramayana''.

★ Vyasa (ca. 6th century BCE), author of the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata'' and scribe of the ''Vedas''.

★ Vaisampayana (ca. 6th century BCE), pupil of Vyasa, expanded the ''Mahabharata'' with many fables.

★ Aesop (mid-6th century BCE), author of ''Aesop's Fables''.

★ Vishnu Sarma (ca. 200 BCE), author of the anthropomorphic political treatise and fable collection, the ''Panchatantra''.

★ Bidpai (ca. 200 BCE), author of Sanskrit (Hindu) and Pali (Buddhist) animal fables in verse and prose.

★ Syntipas (ca. 100 BCE), Indian philosopher, reputed author of a collection of tales known in Europe as ''The Story of the Seven Wise Masters''.

★ Gaius Julius Hyginus (Hyginus, Latin author, native of Spain or Alexandria, ca. 64 BCE - 17 C.E.), author of ''Fabulae''.

★ Phaedrus (15 BCE - 50 CE), Roman fabulist, by birth a Macedonian.

★ Marie de France (12th century).

★ Berechiah ha-Nakdan (Berechiah the Punctuator, or Grammarian, 13th century), author of Jewish fables adapted from Aesop's Fables.

★ Leonardo da Vinci (Italian, 1452 – 1519).

★ Biernat of Lublin (Polish, 1465? – after 1529).

★ Jean de La Fontaine (French, 1621 – 95).

★ John Gay (English) (1685 - 1732)

★ Ignacy Krasicki (Polish, 1735 – 1801).

★ Dositej Obradović (Serbian, 1742? – 1811).

★ Félix María de Samaniego (Spanish, 1745 – 1801), best known for "The Ant and the Cicade."

★ Tomás de Iriarte (Spanish, 1750 – 91).

★ Ivan Krylov (Russian, 1769 – 1844).

Modern fabulists

★ Leo Tolstoy (1828 - 1910).

★ Nico Maniquis (1834 - 1912).

★ Ambrose Bierce (1842 - ?1914).

★ Sholem Aleichem (1859 - 1916).

★ George Ade (1866 - 1944), ''Fables in Slang'', etc.

★ Don Marquis (1878 - 1937), author of the fables of archy and mehitabel.

★ Franz Kafka (1883 - 1924).

★ Damon Runyon (1884 - 1946).

★ James Thurber (1894 - 1961), ''Fables For Our Time''.

★ George Orwell (1903 - 50).

★ Dr. Seuss (1904 - 1991)

★ Isaac Bashevis Singer (1904 - 1991).

★ José Saramago (born 1922).

★ Arnold Lobel (1933 - 87), author of ''Fables'', winner 1981 Caldecott Medal.

★ Bill Willingham (born 1956), author of ''Fables'' graphic novels.

Notable fables

★ ''The Jataka Tales''

★
★ ''The Sky Is Falling''

★ ''Aesop's Fables'' by Aesop

★
★ ''The Boy Who Cried Wolf''

★ ''Panchatantra'' (''Fables of Bidpai'') by Vishnu Sarma

★ ''Baital Pachisi'' (''Vikram and The Vampire'')

★ ''Hitopadesha''

★ ''Seven Wise Masters'' by Syntipas

★ ''Fables and Parables'' by Ignacy Krasicki

★ ''The Emperor's New Clothes''

★ ''Stone Soup''

★ ''The Little Engine that Could''

★ ''Jonathan Livingston Seagull''

★ ''Watership Down''

★ ''The Lion King''

★ ''The Fox and the Cock'' by James Thurber

★ ''Animal Farm'' by George Orwell

Notes

1. For example, in First Timothy, "... neither give heed to fables ...", and "... refuse profane and old wives' fables..." (1 Tim 1.4 and 4.4, respectively).
2. ''Enzyklopädie des Märchens'' (1977), see "Fabel", "Äsopica" etc.
3. Burkert 1992:121
4. Ebeling, ''Die Babylonishe Fabel und ihre Bedeutung für die Literaturgeschichte'' (1931).
5. E. Brunner-Traut, ''Altägyptische Tiergeschichte und Fabel'' (1970)
6. Both noted by Walter Burkert, ''The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Early Archaic Greek Culture'' (1992), p 121 note 4.
7. P.W. Buckham, p. 245

References

★ Theatre of the Greeks, , Philip Wentworth, Buckham, , ,

★ King James Bible; ''New Testament (authorised)''.

See also

★ Allegory

★ Anthropomorphism

★ Apologue

★ Apologia

★ Fairy tale

★ Fantastique

★ Ghost story

★ Parable

★ Proverb

External links

★ Animal Symbolism List of frequently described animals and their characteristics

★ The Dragon-Tyrant

★ Fables - Collection and guide to fables for children

★ Imaginexus A collection of interconnected stories that anyone can edit

★ Beast Fable Society An academic society focused on fables and related genres