(Redirected from Faraon)
'''Pharaoh''' (
Polish title: ''Faraon'') is the fourth and last major
novel by the
Polish writer
Bolesław Prus. Composed over a year's time in 1894-95, it was the sole
historical novel by an author who had previously disapproved of historical novels.
Prus had as a 15-year-old fought in Poland's
1863 Uprising, directed at restoring the country's independence. In ''Pharaoh'' he transmuted his experiences and his subsequent reflections on
human societies into a unique novel on
politics. ''Pharaoh'' is a study of mechanisms of
political power, set in the
Egypt of 1087-85
BCE as the country experiences internal upheavals and external threats that will culminate in the fall of its
Twentieth Dynasty and
New Kingdom.
"Through his analysis of the dynamics of an
ancient Egyptian
society," writes
Nobel laureate Czesław Miłosz, "[Prus] suggests an
archetype of the struggle for
power that goes on within any state."
[1] The ancient
setting also permitted Prus to evade the depredations of the
Russian
censor, and to achieve a distance conducive to a dispassionate analysis of
man and
society.
Prus immersed himself in Egyptian history, art and writings, and produced perhaps the most compelling literary depiction ever of life at every level of
ancient Egyptian society. ''Pharaoh's abiding popularity is attested by
translations into 20 languages and by a 1966
feature film.
Publication
''Pharaoh'' comprises a compact but substantial introduction, 67 chapters and an evocative
epilog (the latter omitted at original publication). Like Prus' previous novels, ''Pharaoh'' debuted (1895-96) in
newspaper serialization. Unlike them, however, it had first been composed in its entirety rather than being written in chapters from issue to issue.
[2]
The 1897 and some subsequent
book editions divided the novel's text into three volumes; later editions have presented it in two volumes or in a single one. Except in wartime, the book has never been out of print in Poland.
Plot
''Pharaoh'' begins with one of the more memorable openings
[3] to be found in a novel — an opening written in the style of an ancient
chronicle:
''Pharaoh'' combines features of several
literary genres: the
historical novel, the
political novel, the ''
Bildungsroman'' and the
sensation novel. It also comprises a number of interbraided strands — including the
plot line, Egypt's cycle of
seasons, the country's
geography and
monuments, and
ancient Egyptian practices (e.g.
mummification rituals and techniques) — each of which rises to prominence at appropriate moments.
The fate of the novel's
protagonist, the future "Ramses XIII" (historically there were only ''eleven''
Ramesside pharaohs), is known from the beginning.
Prus closes his
introduction with the statement that the story "relates to the eleventh century before
Christ, when the
Twentieth Dynasty fell and when, after the demise of the Son of the Sun the eternally living Ramses XIII, the throne was seized by, and the
uraeus came to adorn the brow of, the eternally living Son of the Sun Sem-amen-
Herhor,
High Priest of
Amon."
[4] What the novel will subsequently reveal is the elements that lead to this
denouement: the
character traits of the principals, the
social forces in play.
Ancient Egypt at the end of its
New Kingdom period is experiencing adversities. The deserts are eroding Egypt's
arable land. The country's population has declined from eight to six million. Foreign peoples are entering Egypt in ever-growing numbers, undermining its unity. The chasm between the
peasants and
craftsmen on one hand, and the
ruling classes on the other, is growing, exacerbated by the ruling classes' fondness for
luxury and idleness. The country is becoming ever more deeply indebted to
Phoenician merchants as
imported goods destroy native
industries.
The Egyptian
priesthood, backbone of the
bureaucracy and virtual monopolists of
knowledge, have grown immensely wealthy at the expense of the
pharaoh and the country. Egypt is facing prospective peril at the hands of rising powers to the north:
Assyria and
Persia.
The 22-year-old
Crown Prince Ramses, having as his father's
viceroy made a careful study of
Egypt and of the
challenges that it faces, evolves a strategy that he hopes will arrest the decline of his own
political power and of Egypt's internal
viability and international standing as a
world power. Ramses plans to win over or subordinate the priesthood, especially the of
Amon,
Herhor; obtain for the country's use the
treasures that lie stored in the
Labyrinth; and, emulating
Ramses the Great's military exploits, wage
war against
Assyria.
Ramses proves himself a brilliant
military commander in a victorious lightning
war against the invading
Libyans. On succeeding to the throne, he encounters the adamant opposition of the priestly
hierarchy to his planned
reforms. The broad masses of Egyptian society are instinctively drawn to him, but he must still win over or crush the priesthood and their adherents.
In the course of the political intrigue, Ramses'
private life becomes hostage to the conflicting interests of the Phoenicians and the Egyptian high priests.
Ramses' ultimate downfall is caused by his underestimation of his opponents and by his impatience with priestly
obscurantism: along with the chaff of the priests'
myths and
rituals, he has inadvertently discarded a crucial piece of
scientific knowledge.
Ramses is succeeded to the throne by his arch-enemy
Herhor, who paradoxically ends up raising treasure from the
Labyrinth to finance the very
social reforms that had been planned by Ramses.
Characters
Prus took characters' names where he found them, sometimes
anachronistically or
anatopistically; at other times (as with the priest ''Samentu'' in chapter 55) he apparently invented them.
[5] The origins of the names of some prominent characters may be of interest:
★
Ramses, the novel's
protagonist: the name of two
pharaohs of the
19th Dynasty and nine pharaohs of the
20th Dynasty.
★ Herhor, of
Amon and Ramses' principal
antagonist: historic high priest
Herihor.
★ Pentuer,
scribe to Herhor: historic scribe Pentaur.
[6]
★
Thutmose, Ramses' cousin: a fairly common name, also the name of four pharaohs of the
18th Dynasty.`
★
Sarah, Ramses'
Jewish
mistress; Taphath, Sarah's relative and servant;
Gideon, Sarah's father: names drawn from those of
Biblical personalities.
★ Patrokles, a
Greek mercenary general:
Patroklos, in Homer's ''
Iliad''.
★ Ennana, a junior military officer: Egyptian scribe-pupil's name, attached to an ancient text (cited in chapter 4: Ennana's "plaint on the sore lot of a junior officer").
★ Queen Nikotris, Ramses' mother: historic Queen
Nitocris.
★
Dagon, a
Phoenician merchant: a Phoenician and Philistine god of agriculture and the earth; the national god of the
Philistines.
★
Tamar, Dagon's wife (chapters 8, 13):
Biblical daughter of
David and half-sister of
Absalom.
★ Dutmose, a peasant (chapter 11): historic
scribe Dhutmose, in the reign of Pharaoh
Ramses XI.
★
Menes (three distinct individuals: the first
pharaoh; Sarah's
physician; a savant and Pentuer's
mentor): Menes, the first Egyptian pharaoh.
★ Asarhadon, a ''
Phoenician'' innkeeper: a variant of "
Esarhaddon," an ''
Assyrian'' king.
★
Berossus, a
Chaldean priest: Berossus, a
Babylonian historian and
astrologer who flourished about 300
BCE.
★
Phut (another name used by Berossus): Phut, a descendant of
Noah named in
Genesis.
★
Cush, a guest at Asarhadon's inn: Cush, a descendant of
Noah named in
Genesis.
★
Hiram, a Phoenician prince:
Hiram I, king of
Tyre, in
Phoenicia.
★ Lykon, a young
Greek, Ramses'
look-alike and
nemesis:
Lycon, in the ''
Iliad''.
★
Sargon, an
Assyrian
envoy: name of two Assyrian kings, the first being the founder of one of history's first empires.
★
Seti, Ramses' infant son by Sarah:
Seti I, historic pharaoh, father of
Ramses II ("the Great").
★
Osokhor, a priest thought (chapter 40) to have sold Egyptian priestly secrets to the Phoenicians: a
Meshwesh king who ruled Egypt in the late
21st Dynasty.
★ Musawasa, a
Libyan prince: the
Meshwesh, a Libyan tribe.
★ Tehenna, Musavasa's son: "
Tjehenu," a generic Egyptian term for "Libyan."
★
Dion, a Greek architect: Dion, a historic name that appears in a number of contexts.
★ Hebron, Ramses' last mistress:
Hebron, a city in present-day
Israel.
Themes
In a broad sense, ''Pharaoh'' belongs in a Polish literary tradition of
political fiction whose roots reach back to the
16th century and
Jan Kochanowski's ''The Dismissal of the Greek Envoys''.
''Pharaoh's story covers a two-year period ending in 1085
BCE with the demise of the
Egyptian
Twentieth Dynasty and
New Kingdom.
Polish
Nobel laureate Czesław Miłosz has written of ''Pharaoh'':
"The daring conception of [Prus'] novel ''Pharaoh''... is matched by its excellent artistic composition. It [may] be [described] as a novel on... mechanism[s] of
state power and, as such, is probably unique in
world literature of the nineteenth century.... Prus, [in] selecting the reign of 'Pharaoh Ramses XIII' [the last Ramesside was actually Ramses XI] in the eleventh century [BCE], sought a perspective that was detached from... pressures of [topicality] and censorship. Through his analysis of the dynamics of an
ancient Egyptian society, he... suggest[s] an
archetype of the struggle for
power that goes on within any state. [Prus] convey[s] certain views [regarding] the health and illness of
civilizations.... ''Pharaoh''... is a work worthy of Prus' intellect and [is] one of the best Polish novels."
[7]
The protagonist Ramses learns that those who would oppose the priesthood are vulnerable to cooption,
seduction, subornation,
defamation, intimidation or
assassination. Perhaps the chief lesson, belatedly absorbed by Ramses, is the importance, to power, of
knowledge or
science.
[8]
At one level, ''Pharaoh'' is an extended study of the
metaphor of
society-as-
organism that Prus had adopted from
Herbert Spencer and that he memorably made explicit in the introduction to the novel. All of a society's
organ systems must work together in harmony if the society is to survive and prosper.
As a
political novel, ''Pharaoh'' became a favorite of
Joseph Stalin's.
[9] Similarities have been pointed out between it and
Sergei Eisenstein's film ''
Ivan the Terrible'', produced under Stalin's tutelage.
[10] The novel's
English translator,
Christopher Kasparek, has recounted presciently wondering, well in advance of the event, whether
President John F. Kennedy would meet with a fate like that of the book's protagonist.
[11]
Inspirations
''Pharaoh'' is unique in Prus' ''
oeuvre'' as a
''historical'' novel. A
Positivist by
philosophical persuasion, Prus had long argued that historical novels must inevitably distort historic reality. He had, however, eventually come over to the
French Positivist critic Hippolyte Taine's view that the
arts, including
literature, may act as a second means alongside the
sciences to study reality, including broad
historic reality.
[12] Prus did in fact, in the interest of making certain points, introduce some
anachronisms and
anatopisms into the novel.
''Pharaoh'' drew from many sources for its inspiration. Depicting the demise of
Egypt's
New Kingdom three thousand years earlier, the book also reflects the
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth's
demise in 1795, exactly a century before ''Pharaoh's completion.
[13]
A preliminary sketch for Prus' only
historical novel was his first historical
short story, "
A Legend of Old Egypt." This remarkable story shows clear parallels with the subsequent novel in
setting,
theme and
denouement.
"
A Legend of Old Egypt," in its turn, had taken inspiration from contemporaneous events: the fatal 1887-88 illnesses of Germany's warlike
Kaiser Wilhelm I and of his reform-minded successor,
Friedrich III.
[14] The latter emperor ''would'', then unbeknown to Prus, survive his ninety-year-old predecessor, but only by ninety-nine days.
In 1893 Prus' old friend
Julian Ochorowicz, having returned to
Warsaw from
Paris, delivered several public lectures on
ancient Egyptian knowledge. Ochorowicz (whom Prus had portrayed in ''
The Doll'' as the scientist "Julian Ochocki") may have inspired Prus to write his
historical novel about
ancient Egypt, and made available to Prus books on the subject that he had brought from Paris.
[15]
In preparation for composing ''Pharaoh'', Prus made a painstaking study of
Egyptological sources, including works by
John William Draper,
Ignacy Żagiell,
Georg Ebers and
Gaston Maspero.
[16] Prus actually incorporated ancient texts into his novel like
tesserae into a
mosaic; drawn from one such text
[17] was a major character, Ennana.
There are as well, throughout the book, numberless echoes of the ''
Bible'' (e.g.,
a miniature turning-of-water-to-blood) and of
ancient history generally, including
Troy and its recent excavation by
Heinrich Schliemann.
For certain of the novel's prominent features Prus, conscientious journalist and scholar that he was, seems to have insisted on having two sources, one of them being based on personal or at least contemporary experience. Thus the historical Egyptian
Labyrinth had been described in the fifth century
BCE in Book II of ''
The Histories of Herodotus'' by the
Father of History, who visited Egypt's entirely stone-built administrative center, pronounced it more impressive than the pyramids, declared it "beyond my power to describe," then proceeded to give a striking description
[18] that Prus
incorporated into his novel.
[19] The Labyrinth had been made palpably real for Prus, however, by an 1878 visit he paid to the famous ancient labyrinthine
salt mine at Wieliczka, near
Kraków in southern Poland.
[20] According to the foremost Prus scholar,
Zygmunt Szweykowski, "The power of the Labyrinth scenes stems, among other things, from the fact that they echo Prus' own experiences when visiting
Wieliczka."
[21]
Writing over four decades before the construction of the
United States'
Fort Knox Depository, Prus pictures Egypt's Labyrinth as a perhaps flood-able Egyptian Fort Knox, a repository of
gold bullion and of artistic and historic treasures. It was, he writes (chapter 56), "the greatest treasury in Egypt. [H]ere... was preserved the treasure of the Egyptian kingdom, accumulated over centuries, of which it is difficult today to have any conception."
[22]
Another dually-determined feature of the novel is the "Suez Canal" that the Phoenician Prince Hiram proposes digging. The modern
Suez Canal had been completed by
Ferdinand de Lesseps in 1869, a quarter-century before Prus commenced writing ''Pharaoh''. But, as Prus was aware in chapter one, it had had a predecessor in a canal connecting the
Nile River with the
Red Sea (during Egypt's
Middle Kingdom, centuries before the period of the novel).
[23]
A third dually-determined feature was inspired by a
solar eclipse that Prus had witnessed at
MÅ‚awa, a hundred kilometers north-northwest of
Warsaw, on
August 19,
1887, the day before his fortieth birthday. Prus likely was also aware of
Christopher Columbus' manipulative use of a
''lunar'' eclipse on
February 29,
1504, while marooned for a year on
Jamaica, in an incident which strikingly resembles the exploitation of a
''solar'' eclipse by Ramses' chief antagonist, Herhor, high priest of Amon.
[24]
Finally, a fourth dually-determined feature relates to Egyptian beliefs about an
afterlife. In 1893, the year before beginning his novel, Prus the
skeptic had started taking an intense interest in
Spiritualism, attending
Warsaw séances which featured the
Italian medium,
Eusapia Palladino.
[25]
Modern
Spiritualism had been initiated in 1848 in Hydeville, New York, by the
Fox sisters, Katie and Margaret, aged 11 and 15, and had survived even their 1888 confession that forty years earlier they had caused the "
spirits'" telegraph-like tapping sounds by snapping their toe joints.
Spiritualist "mediums" in America and Europe claimed to communicate through tapping sounds with spirits of the dead, eliciting their secrets and conjuring up voices, music, noises and other antics, and occasionally working "miracles" such as
levitation.
[26]
Spiritualism inspired several of ''Pharaoh's most striking scenes, especially (chapter 20) the secret meeting at the Temple of Seth in Memphis between three Egyptian priests—Herhor, Mefres, Pentuer—and the
Chaldean
magus-priest Berossus.
[27]
Prus, a disciple of
Positivist philosophy, took a strong interest in the
history of science. He was aware of
Eratosthenes' remarkably accurate calculation of the
earth's circumference, and the invention of a
steam engine by
Heron of Alexandria, centuries after the period of his novel, in
Alexandrian Egypt. In chapter 60, he fictitiously credits these achievements to the priest Menes, one of three individuals of the identical name who are mentioned or depicted in ''Pharaoh''
[28]: Prus was not always fastidious about characters' names.
Accuracy
Examples of
anachronism and
anatopism mentioned above make it clear that punctilious historic accuracy was never an overriding object with Prus in writing ''Pharaoh.'' "That's not the point,"
Joseph Conrad told a relative regarding putative inaccuracies in ''Pharaoh''.
[29] Prus had long emphasized in his "Weekly Chronicles" that
historical novels cannot help but distort historic reality; he used
ancient Egypt as a great canvas on which to draw his deeply-considered perspectives of
man,
civilization and
politics.
That said, in many regards ''Pharaoh'' ''is'' remarkably accurate, even from the standpoint of present-day
Egyptology; and the novel does a unique job of recreating a primal ancient civilization, complete with the country's geography, climate, plants, animals, ethnicities, countryside, cities,
social stratification, politics, religion and warfare. Prus succeeds incomparably in transporting readers back to the Egypt of thirty-one centuries ago.
[30]
The
embalming and
funeral scenes, the
court protocol, the waking and feeding of the
gods, the
religious beliefs, ceremonies and processions, the concept behind the design of Pharaoh
Zoser's
Step Pyramid at
Saqqara, the descriptions of travels and locales visited on the
Nile and in the
desert — could hardly be bettered. The personalities and behaviors of the characters are keenly observed and deftly drawn, often incorporating appropriate
ancient Egyptian texts.
Popularity
As a "
political novel," ''Pharaoh'' has since 1895 gained fresh relevance with each decade. The book's undiminished popularity, however, is as much due to a critical yet sympathetic view of
human nature and the
human condition. Prus offers a vision of humankind as rich as
Shakespeare's, ranging from the
sublime to the
quotidian, from the
tragic to the
comic.
[31] The book is written in
limpid prose, suffused with
poetry, leavened with
humor, graced with moments of transcendent
beauty.
[32]
''Pharaoh'' has been
translated into twenty
languages: Armenian, Bulgarian, Czech, Dutch, English, Esperanto, Estonian, French, Georgian, German, Hebrew, Hungarian, Lithuanian, Romanian, Russian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish and Ukrainian. In 1966 it was produced as a
Polish feature film, ''Faraon'' (
Polish for "Pharaoh").
[28]
Notes
1. Czesław Miłosz, ''The History of Polish Literature'', p. 299.
2. Edward Pieścikowski, ''Bolesław Prus'', p.157.
3. Bolesław Prus, ''Pharaoh'', p. 12.
4. Bolesław Prus, ''Pharaoh'', p. 11.
5. Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' ''Pharaoh'': the Creation of a Historical Novel," ''The Polish Review'', 1994, no. 1, p. 48.
6. Breasted, ''A History of Egypt'', p. 381.
7. Czesław Miłosz, ''The History of Polish Literature'', pp. 299-302.
8. Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' ''Pharaoh'': Primer on Power," ''The Polish Review'', 1995, no. 3, pp. 331-32.
9. Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' ''Pharaoh'': Primer on Power," p. 332.
10. Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' ''Pharaoh'' and Curtin's Translation," ''The Polish Review'', 1986, nos. 2-3, p. 128.
11. Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' ''Pharaoh'' and Curtin's Translation," p. 128.
12. Zygmunt Szweykowski, ''Twórczość Bolesława Prusa'', p. 109.
13. Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' ''Pharaoh'': the Creation of a Historical Novel," p. 46.
14. Zygmunt Szweykowski, ''"Geneza noweli 'Z legend dawnego Egiptu'"'' ("The Genesis of the Short Story, 'A Legend of Old Egypt'"), in ''Nie tylko o Prusie: szkice'', pp. 256-61, 299-300.
15. Jan Wantuła, "''Prus i Ochorowicz w Wiśle''" ("Prus and Ochorowicz in Wisła"), in Stanisław Fita, ed., ''Wspomnienia o Bolesławie Prusie'', p. 215.
16. Krystyna Tokarzówna and Stanisław Fita, ''Bolesław Prus, 1847-1912: Kalendarz życia i twórczości'', pp. 452-53.
17. This text may be found in Adolf Erman, ed., ''The Ancient Egyptians: a Sourcebook of Their Writings'', pp. 194-95.
18. Herodotus, ''The Histories'', translated by Aubrey de Selincourt, Book II, pp. 160-61.
19. Bolesław Prus, ''Pharaoh'', pp. 493–95.
20. Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' ''Pharaoh'' and the Wieliczka Salt Mine," ''The Polish Review'', 1997, no. 3, pp. 349-55.
21. Zygmunt Szweykowski, ''Twórczość Bolesława Prusa'', p. 451.
22. Bolesław Prus, ''Pharaoh'', p. 493.
23. Bolesław Prus, ''Pharaoh'', p. 13.
24. Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' ''Pharaoh'' and the Solar Eclipse," ''The Polish Review'', 1997, no. 4, pp. 471-78. Samuel Eliot Morison, ''Christopher Columbus, Mariner'', pp. 184-92.
25. Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' ''Pharaoh'': Primer on Power," pp. 332-33.
26. Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' ''Pharaoh'': Primer on Power," p. 333.
27. Bolesław Prus, ''Pharaoh'', pp. 147-57.
28. Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' ''Pharaoh'' and Curtin's Translation," p. 129.
29. Zdzisław Najder, ''Conrad under Familial Eyes'', p. 215.
30. Edward Pieścikowski, ''Bolesław Prus'', pp. 135–38.
31. Zygmunt Szweykowski, ''Twórczość Bolesława Prusa'', pp. 345–47.
32. Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' ''Pharaoh'': the Creation of a Historical Novel," p. 49.
33. Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' ''Pharaoh'' and Curtin's Translation," p. 129.
References
★
Czesław Miłosz, ''The History of
Polish Literature'', New York, Macmillan, 1969.
★
Zygmunt Szweykowski, ''Nie tylko o Prusie: szkice'' (Not Only about
Prus: Sketches), Poznań, Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, 1967.
★ Krystyna Tokarzówna and StanisÅ‚aw Fita, ''
Bolesław Prus, 1847-1912: Kalendarz życia i twórczości'' (
Bolesław Prus, 1847-1912: a Calendar of [His] Life and Work), edited by
Zygmunt Szweykowski, Warsaw, Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1969.
★
Zygmunt Szweykowski, ''Twórczość Bolesława Prusa'' (The Art of
Bolesław Prus), 2nd edition, Warsaw, Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1972.
★ Edward PieÅ›cikowski, ''
Bolesław Prus'', 2nd ed., Warsaw, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1985.
★ StanisÅ‚aw Fita, ed., ''Wspomnienia o BolesÅ‚awie Prusie'' (Reminiscences about
Bolesław Prus), Warsaw, Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1962.
★
Zdzisław Najder, ''
Conrad under Familial Eyes'', Cambridge University Press, 1984, ISBN 0-521-25082-X.
★
James Henry Breasted, ''A History of Egypt from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest'', New York,
Bantam Books, 1967.
★
Adolf Erman, ed., ''The Ancient Egyptians: a Sourcebook of Their Writings'', translated [from the German] by Aylward M. Blackman, introduction to the Torchbook edition by William Kelly Simpson, New York, Harper & Row, 1966.
★
Herodotus, ''
The Histories'', Newly translated and with an Introduction by Aubrey de Selincourt, Harmondsworth, England, Penguin Books, 1965.
★
Samuel Eliot Morison, ''
Christopher Columbus, Mariner'', Boston, Little, Brown and Company, 1955.
★
Christopher Kasparek, "
Prus' ''Pharaoh'' and
Curtin's
Translation," ''
The Polish Review'', 1986, nos. 2-3, pp. 127-35.
★
Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' ''Pharaoh'': the Creation of a
Historical Novel," ''
The Polish Review'', 1994, no. 1, pp. 45-50.
★
Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' ''Pharaoh'': Primer on
Power," ''
The Polish Review'', 1995, no. 3, pp. 331-34.
★
Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' ''Pharaoh'' and the
Wieliczka Salt Mine," ''
The Polish Review'', 1997, no. 3, pp. 349-55.
★
Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' ''Pharaoh'' and the
Solar Eclipse," ''
The Polish Review'', 1997, no. 4, pp. 471-78.
★
Bolesław Prus, ''Pharaoh'', translated from the
Polish by
Christopher Kasparek (2nd, revised ed.), Warsaw, Polestar Publications (ISBN 83-88177-01-X), and New York,
Hippocrene Books, 2001.
See also
★ "
A Legend of Old Egypt"
★ "
Mold of the Earth"
★
Assassinations in fiction
★
Egypt in the European imagination
★
Political fiction
★
Politics in fiction
★
Solar eclipses in fiction
★
Spiritualism in fiction
★
Labyrinth
★
Wieliczka Salt Mine
★
Look-alike
★
Anatopism
★
Anachronism
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