The 'Germanic languages' are a group of related languages constituting a branch of the
Indo-European (IE) language family. The common ancestor of all languages comprising this branch is
Proto-Germanic, spoken in approximately the latter mid-
1st millennium BC in
Iron Age Northern Europe. Proto-Germanic, along with all of its descendants, is characterized by a number of unique linguistic features, most famously the
consonant change known as
Grimm's law. Early Germanic varieties enter history with the
Germanic peoples who settled in northern Europe along the borders of the
Roman Empire from the 2nd century.
The largest Germanic languages are
English and
German, with approximately 400 and 100 million native speakers respectively. The group consists of other major languages, such as
Dutch with 22 and
Afrikaans with over 16 million speakers; and the
North Germanic languages including
Norwegian,
Danish,
Swedish,
Icelandic, and
Faroese with a combined total of about 20 million speakers. The
SIL ''Ethnologue'' lists 53 different Germanic languages and dialects.
Characteristics
Germanic languages possess several unique features, such as the following:
# The leveling of the IE
tense and
aspect system into the
present tense and
past tense (also called
preterite).
# A large class of verbs that use a dental suffix (/d/ or /t/) instead of
vowel alternation (
Indo-European ablaut) to indicate past tense. These are called the
Germanic weak verbs; the remaining verbs with vowel ablaut are the
Germanic strong verbs. (Modern English has 161 strong verbs; all are of Germanic origin.)
# The use of so-called strong and weak
adjectives: different sets of inflectional endings for adjectives depending on the
definiteness of the noun phrase. (Modern English adjectives do not inflect at all, except for the comparative and superlative; this was not the case in
Old English, where adjectives were inflected differently depending on whether they were preceded by an article or demonstrative.)
# The consonant shift known as
Grimm's Law. (The consonants in High German have shifted farther yet by the
High German consonant shift.)
# A number of words with etymologies that are difficult to link to other Indo-European families, but variants of which appear in almost all Germanic languages. ''See
Germanic substrate hypothesis.''
# The shifting of stress accent onto the root of the stem and later to the first syllable of the word. (Though English has an irregular stress, native words always have a fixed stress regardless of what is added to them.)
Germanic languages differ from each other to a greater degree than do some other
language families such as the
Romance or
Slavic languages. Roughly speaking, Germanic languages differ in how conservative or how progressive each language is with respect to an overall trend towards
analyticity. Some, like
German,
Dutch and
Icelandic, have preserved much of the complex
inflectional morphology inherited from the
Proto-Indo-European language. Others, like
English,
Swedish and
Afrikaans have moved towards a largely analytic type.
Another characteristic of Germanic languages is 'verb second' or
V2 word order, which is quite uncommon cross-linguistically. This feature is shared by all modern Germanic languages except
English, which appears to have had V2 earlier in its history but has largely replaced the structure with an overall
SVO structure.
Writing
The earliest evidence of Germanic comes from names recorded in the 1st century by
Tacitus (especially from his work ''
Germania''), but the earliest Germanic writing occurs in a single instance in the
2nd century BC on the
Negau helmet[1].
From roughly the
2nd century AD, certain speakers of early Germanic varieties developed the
Elder Futhark, an early form of the
runic alphabet. Early runic inscriptions are also largely limited to personal names, and difficult to interpret. The
Gothic language was written in the
Gothic alphabet developed by Bishop
Ulfilas for his translation of the
Bible in the
4th century. Later,
Christian priests and monks who spoke and read
Latin in addition to their native Germanic varieties began writing the Germanic languages with slightly modified Latin letters. However, throughout the
Viking Age,
runic alphabets remained in common use in Scandinavia.
In addition to the standard
Latin alphabet, various Germanic languages use a variety of accent marks and extra letters, including
umlauts, the
ß (''Eszett''),
IJ,
Ø,
Æ,
Å,
Ä,
Ö,
Ð,
, and
Þ and
, from runes. Historic printed
German is frequently set in
blackletter typefaces (e.g.
fraktur or
schwabacher).
History
All Germanic languages are thought to be descended from a hypothetical
Proto-Germanic, united by their having been subjected to the sound shifts of
Grimm's law and
Verner's law. These took place probably during the
Pre-Roman Iron Age of Northern Europe from ca.
500 BC, but other common innovations separating Germanic from
Proto-Indo European suggest a common history of pre-Proto-Germanic speakers throughout the
Nordic Bronze Age.
From the time of their earliest attestation, the Germanic varieties are divided into three groups,
West,
East and
North Germanic. Their exact relation is difficult to determine from the sparse evidence of runic inscriptions, and they remained mutually intelligible throughout the
Migration period, so that some individual varieties are difficult to classify.
The 6th century
Lombardic language, for instance, may constitute an originally either North or East Germanic variety that became assimilated to West Germanic as the
Lombards settled at the
Elbe. The Western group would have formed in the late
Jastorf culture, the Eastern group may be derived from the 1st century variety of
Gotland (see
Old Gutnish), leaving southern
Sweden as the original location of the Northern group . The earliest coherent Germanic text preserved is the 4th century
Gothic translation of the
New Testament by
Ulfilas. Early testimonies of West Germanic are in
Old High German (scattered words and sentences 6th century, coherent texts 9th century),
Old English (coherent texts 10th century). North Germanic is only attested in scattered runic inscriptions, as
Proto-Norse, until it evolves into
Old Norse by about 800.
Longer runic inscriptions survive from the
8th and
9th centuries (
Eggjum stone,
Rök stone), longer texts in the Latin alphabet survive from the 12th century (
Íslendingabók), and some
skaldic poetry held to date back to as early as the 9th century.
'The Germanic languages in Europe'
By about the 10th century, the varieties had diverged enough to make
intercomprehensibility difficult. The linguistic contact of the
Viking settlers of the
Danelaw with the
Anglo-Saxons left traces in the English language, and is suspected to have facilitated the collapse of Old English grammar that resulted in
Middle English from the 12th century.
The East Germanic languages were marginalized from the end of the Migration period. The
Burgundians,
Goths and
Vandals became linguistically assimilated to their respective neighbors by about the 7th century, with only
Crimean Gothic lingering on until the 18th century.
During the early Middle Ages, the West Germanic languages were separated by the insular development of Middle English on one hand, and by the
High German consonant shift on the continent on the other, resulting in
Upper German and
Low Saxon, with graded intermediate
Central German varieties. By Early modern times, the span had extended into considerable differences, ranging from
Highest Alemannic in the South to
Northern Low Saxon in the North, and although both extremes are considered
German, they are hardly mutually intelligible. The southernmost varieties have completed the second sound shift, while the northern varieties remained unaffected by the consonant shift.
The North Germanic languages, on the other hand, remained more unified, with the larger languages largely retaining mutual intelligibility into modern times.
Classification
Note that divisions between subfamilies of Germanic are rarely precisely defined; most form continuous clines, with adjacent
varieties being mutually intelligible and more separated ones not.
Diachronic
'General Note': The table shows the succession of the significant historical stages of each language (vertically), and their approximate groupings in subfamilies (horizontally). Horizontal sequence within each group does not imply a measure of greater or lesser similarity.
'Note 1:' There are conflicting opinions on the classification of
Lombardic. Contrary to its isolated position in the table above, it has also been classified as close to either
Upper German or
Old Saxon. See the article on the
Lombardic language for more information.
'Note 2:' ''Late''
Middle Ages refers to the post
Black Death period. Especially for the language situation in
Norway this event was important.
'Note 3:' The speakers of
Norn were assimilated to speak the
Modern Scots varieties, and the
Gutnish language is today practically a dialect of Swedish.
Contemporary
Mentioned here are all the principal and some secondary contemporary varieties; individual articles linked to below may contain larger family trees. For example, many Low Saxon varieties are discussed on
Low Saxon besides just Northern Low Saxon and Plautdietsch.
★
Proto-Germanic
★
★
West Germanic languages
★
★
★
High German languages
★
★
★
★
standard German
★
★
★
★
Central German
★
★
★
★
★
East Central German
★
★
★
★
★
West Central German
★
★
★
★
★
★
Luxembourgish
★
★
★
★
★
★
Pennsylvania German (spoken by the
Amish and other groups in southeastern
Pennsylvania)
★
★
★
★
Upper German
★
★
★
★
★
Alemannic German
★
★
★
★
★
★
Swabian German, including
Stuttgart
★
★
★
★
★
★
Low Alemannic German, including the area of
Lake Constance and
Basel German
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Alsatian
★
★
★
★
★
★
High Alemannic German, including
Zürich German and
Bernese German
★
★
★
★
★
★
Highest Alemannic German, including the
Bernese Oberland dialects and
Walliser German
★
★
★
★
★
Austro-Bavarian German
★
★
★
★
★
★ North Bavarian (including
Nuremberg)
★
★
★
★
★
★ Middle Bavarian (including
Munich and
Vienna)
★
★
★
★
★
★ South Bavarian (including
Innsbruck,
Klagenfurt and
Bolzano, Italy)
★
★
★
★
★
★
Hutterite German (aka "Tirolean")
★
★
★
★
★
Yiddish (with a significant influx of vocabulary from
Hebrew and other languages, and traditionally written in the
Hebrew alphabet)
★
★
★
★
Wymysorys (with a significant influence from
Low Saxon,
Dutch,
Polish and
Scots)
★
★
★
Low Franconian
★
★
★
★ Standard Dutch
★
★
★
★
★
Old Dutch
★
★
★
★
★
★
Middle Dutch
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Modern Dutch
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Brabantic
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Zealandic
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
West Flemish
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
East Flemish
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Hollandic
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Limburgish
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Zuid-Gelders
★
★
★
★
Afrikaans (with a significant influx of vocabulary from other languages)
★
★
★
Low German
★
★
★
★
West Low German
★
★
★
★
★
Northern Low Saxon
★
★
★
★
★
★
East Frisian Low Saxon
★
★
★
★
★
Westphalian language
★
★
★
★
★
Eastphalian language
★
★
★
★
East Low German
★
★
★
★
★
Plautdietsch (
Mennonite Low Saxon)
★
★
★
Anglo-Frisian
★
★
★
★
Old Frisian
★
★
★
★
★
Frisian
★
★
★
★
★
★
Stadsfries language
★
★
★
★
★
★
West Frisian language (spoken in The Netherlands)
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Clay Frisian (Klaaifrysk)
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Wood Frisian (Wâldfrysk)
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Noardhoeks
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ South Frisian (Súdhoeks)
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Southwest Frisian (Súdwesthoeksk)
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Schiermonnikoogs
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Hindeloopers
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Aasters
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Westers
★
★
★
★
★
★
East Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Saterland Frisian language
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Several extinct Frisian variants
★
★
★
★
★
★
North Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Mainland Frisian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Mooring
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Goesharde Frisian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Wiedingharde Frisian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Halligen Frisian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Karrharde Frisian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Island Frisian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Söl'ring
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Fering
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Öömrang
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Heligolandic
★
★
★
★
Anglic
★
★
★
★
★
English language
★
★
★
★
★
★
Old English
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Middle English (significant influx of words from
Old French)
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Early Modern English
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Modern English
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
British English (
English English, including
Northern English,
Midlands English,
Southern English dialects and others,
Welsh English,
Scottish English) and
Irish English
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
North American English (
American English and
Canadian English)
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Australian English and
New Zealand English
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
South African English
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
South Asian English (
Indian English)
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
South-East Asian English (
Singapore English,
Malaysian English)
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
West Indian English (
Caribbean English)
★
★
★
★
★
Scots language
★
★
★
★
★
★
Early Scots[2] (from
Northern Middle English with a significant influx of words from
Anglo-Norman and
Norse)
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Middle Scots
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Modern Scots language (huge influx of
Latinate vocabulary, mostly via
Norman French, some Scanadinavian influence via
Anglo-Norse)
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Northern Scots
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
North Northern
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Mid Northern
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
North East Scots
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Doric aka South Northern
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Central Scots
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
North East
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
South East Central
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
West Central
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
South West Central Scots
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
South Scots "Border Tongue"
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Insular Scots
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Ulster Scots aka "Ullans"(
Ulster/
Lallans)
★
★
★
★
★
Yola
★
★
North Germanic
★
★
★
Proto-Norse
★
★
★
★
Old Norse
★
★
★
★
★ West Scandinavian
★
★
★
★
★
★
Norwegian (gen. Western branch, but heavy influence from Eastern branch)
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Bokmål Official written standard
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Nynorsk Official written standard
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Riksmål Unofficial written standard
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Høgnorsk Unofficial written standard
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Vestlandsk
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Sørlandsk
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ South-West Norwegian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Bergen Norwegian/
Bergensk
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ North-West Norwegian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Nord-Norsk
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Helgeland Norwegian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Nordland Norwegian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Troms Norwegian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Finnmark Norwegian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ East Norwegian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Vikvær Norwegian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Middle East Norwegian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Oppland Norwegian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Østerdal Norwegian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Midland Norwegian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Gudbrandsdal Norwegian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Valdres and
Hallingdal
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Western Telemark Norwegian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Eastern Telemark Norwegian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Trøndelag Norwegian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Outer Trøndelag Norwegian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Inner Trøndelag Norwegian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Namdal Norwegian
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ South-eastern Trøndersk
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Jamtlandic (also considered
Norrlandic)
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Härdalic (also considered
Norrlandic)
★
★
★
★
★
★
Icelandic
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Old Icelandic
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Modern Icelandic
★
★
★
★
★
★
Gøtudanskt(''Faroese Street Danish'')
★
★
★
★
★
★
Faroese
★
★
★
★
★
★
Norn (Extinct)
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Shetland Norn (Extinct)
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Orkney Norn (Extinct)
★
★
★
★
★ East Scandinavian
★
★
★
★
★
★
Danish
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Rigsdansk/Rigsmål
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Eastern Danish (Amager, Bornholm, Skåne, Halland, Blekinge)
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Island Danish
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Jutlandic/Jutish
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ North Jutlandic
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ East Jutlandic
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ West Jutlandic
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Sønderjysk (Danish
Slesvig, German
Schleswig)
★
★
★
★
★
★
Swedish
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Dalecarlian language
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Älvdalsmål (considered a Swedish ''Sveamål'' dialect, but has official orthography and is, because of a lower degree of mutual intelligibility with Swedish, considered a separate language by many linguists, see p. 6 in
this reference)
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Old Swedish
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
New Swedish
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
Modern Swedish
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Sveamål
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Norrländska mål
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Götamål
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Östsvenska mål (
Finland Swedish)
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★
★ Sydsvenska mål
★
★
★
★
★
Old Gutnish
★
★
★
★
★
★
Modern Gutnish
Alternate classification of contemporary North Germanic languages
★ Insular Scandinavian
★
★
Icelandic
★
★
Faroese
★ Continental Scandinavian
★
★
Danish
★
★
Norwegian
★
★
Swedish
Vocabulary comparison
Several of the terms in the table below have had
semantic drift. For example, the form 'Sterben' and other terms for 'die' are
cognates with the English word 'starve'. There is also at least one example of a common borrowing from a Non-Germanic source (''ounce'' and its cognates from
Latin).
| English | Scots | Frisian | Afrikaans | Dutch | Low Saxon | German | Gothic | Icelandic | Faroese | Swedish | Danish | Norwegian (Bokmål) | Norwegian (Nynorsk) |
|---|
| Apple | Aiple | Appel | Appel | Appel | Appel | Apfel | Aplus | Epli | Epl(i) [3] | Äpple | Æble | Eple | Eple |
| Board | Buird | Board | Bord | Bord | Boord | Brett / Bord [4] | Baúrd | Borð | Borð | Bord | Bord | Bord | Bord |
| Beech | Beech | Boeke/ Boekebeam | Beuk | Beuk | Böke | Buche | Bōka [5]/ -bagms | Bók | Bók | Bok | Bøg | Bøk | Bøk, Bok |
| Book | Beuk | Boek | Boek | Boek | Book | Buch | Bōka | Bók | Bók | Bok | Bog | Bok | Bok |
| Breast | Breest | Boarst | Bors | Borst | Bost | Brust | Brusts | Brjóst | Bróst | Bröst | Bryst | Bryst | Bryst |
| Brown | Broun | Brún | Bruin | Bruin | Bruun | Braun | Bruns | Brúnn | Brúnur | Brun | Brun | Brun | Brun |
| Day | Day | Dei | Dag | Dag | Dag | Tag | Dags | Dagur | Dagur | Dag | Dag | Dag | Dag |
| Dead | Deid | Dea | Dood | Dood | Dood | Tot | Dauþs | Dauður | Deyður | Död | Død | Død | Daud |
| Die (Starve) | Dee | Stjerre | Sterf | Sterven | Döen/ Starven | Sterben | Diwan | Deyja | Doyggja | Dö | Dø | Dø | Døy |
| Enough | Eneuch | Genôg | Genoeg | Genoeg | Noog | Genug | Ganōhs | Nóg | Nóg/ Nógmikið | Nog | Nok | Nok | Nok |
| Finger | Finger | Finger | Vinger | Vinger | Finger | Finger | Figgrs | Fingur | Fingur | Finger | Finger | Finger | Finger |
| Give | Gie | Jan | Gee | Geven | Geven | Geben | Giban | Gefa | Geva | Giva / Ge | Give | Gi | Gje(va) |
| Glass | Gless | Glês | Glas | Glas | Glas | Glas | | Gler | Glas | Glas | Glas | Glass | Glas |
| Gold | Gowd | Goud | Goud | Goud | Gold | Gold | Gulþ | Gull | Gull | Guld/ Gull | Guld | Gull | Gull |
| Hand | Haund | Hân | Hand | Hand | Hand | Hand | Handus | Hönd | Hond | Hand | Hånd | Hånd | Hand |
| Head | Heid | Holle | Hoof [6]/ Kop[7] | Hoofd/ Kop[7] | Kopp[7] | Haupt/ Kopf[7] | Háubiþ | Höfuð | Høvd/ Høvur | Huvud | Hoved | Hode | Hovud |
| High | Heich | Heech | Hoog | Hoog | Hoog | Hoch | Háuh | Hár | Høg/ur | Hög | Høj | Høy/høg | Høg |
| Home | Hame | Hiem | Heim [11]/ Tuis[12] | Heim 11/Thuis[12] | Heim | Heim | Háimōþ | Heim | Heim | Hem | Hjem | Hjem/heim | Heim |
| Hook | Heuk | Hoek | Haak | Haak | Haak | Haken | Krappa/ Krampa | Krókur | Krókur/ Ongul | Hake/ Krok | Hage/ Krog | Hake/ Krok | Hake/ Krok[14] |
| House | Hoose | Hûs | Huis | Huis | Huus | Haus | Hūs | Hús | Hús | Hus | Hus | Hus | Hus |
| Many | Mony | Menich | Menige | Menig | Mennig | Manch | Manags | Margir | Mangir/ Nógvir | Många | Mange | Mange | Mange |
| Moon | Muin | Moanne | Maan | Maan | Maan | Mond | Mēna | Tungl/ Máni | Máni/ Tungl | Måne | Måne | Måne | Måne |
| Night | Nicht | Nacht | Nag | Nacht | Natt/ Nacht | Nacht | Nótt | Nótt | Natt | Natt | Nat | Natt | Natt |
| No | Nae | Nee | Nee | Nee(n) | Nee | Nein (Nö, Nee) | Nē | Nei | Nei | Nej | Nej | Nei | Nei |
| Old | Auld | Âld | Oud | Oud, Gammel [15] | Oll | Alt | Sineigs | Gamall (but: eldri, elstur) | Gamal (but: eldri, elstur) | Gammal (but: äldre, äldst) | Gammel (but: ældre, ældst) | Gammel (but: eldre, eldst) | Gam(m)al (but: eldre, eldst) |
| One | Ane | Ien | Een | Een | Een | Eins | Áins | Einn | Ein | En | En | En | Ein |
| Ounce | Unce | Ons | Ons | Ons | Ons | Unze | Unkja | Únsa | Únsa | Uns | Unse | Unse | Unse |
| Snow | Snaw | Snie | Sneeu | Sneeuw | Snee | Schnee | Snáiws | Snjór | Kavi/ Snjógvur | Snö | Sne | Snø | Snø |
| Stone | Stane | Stien | Steen | Steen | Steen | Stein | Stáins | Steinn | Steinur | Sten | Sten | Stein | Stein |
| That | That | Dat | Dit, Daardie | Dat, Die | Dat (Dit) | Das | Þata | Það | Tað | Det | Det | Det | Det |
| Two/Twain | Twa | Twa | Twee | Twee | Twee | Zwei (Zwo) | Twái | Tveir/ Tvær/ Tvö | Tveir (/Tvá) | Två | To | To | To [16] |
| Who | Wha | Wie | Wie | Wie | Wokeen | Wer | Ƕas (Hwas) | Hver | Hvør | Vem | Hvem | Hvem | Kven |
| Worm | Wirm | Wjirm | Wurm | Wurm/ Worm | Worm | Wurm | Maþa | Maðkur, Ormur | Maðkur/ Ormur | Mask/ Orm [17] | Orm | Mark/ Makk/ Orm | Mark/ Makk/ Orm [17] |
| English | Scots | Frisian | Afrikaans | Dutch | Low Saxon | Standard German | Gothic | Icelandic | Faroese | Swedish | Danish | Norwegian (Bokmål) | Norwegian (Nynorsk) |
|---|
Notes
1. The Early Germans, Malcolm Todd, , , Blackwell Publishing, 1992,
2. Purely modern term; it contradicts contemporary usage, which designated Scottish English as ''Inglis'' (i.e. English), whereas ''Scottis'' (i.e Scots) meant Gaelic. But such chronological terminology is widely used, for example, by ''Scottish Language Dictionaries Ltd.'' (Formally SNDA), Dr. Anne King of ''The University of Edinburgh'' and by ''The University of Glasgow''. It is also used in ''The Oxford Companion to the English Language'' and ''The Cambridge History of English and American Literature''
3. The cognate means 'potato'. The correct word is 'Súrepli'.
4. Brett used in Southern, Bord also used in Northern Germany
5. Attested meaning 'letter', but also means beech in other Germanic languages, cf. Russian buk 'beech', bukva 'letter', maybe from Gothic.
6. Now only used in compound words such as ''hoofpyn'' (headache) and metaphorically such as ''hoofstad'' (capital city).
7. From an old Latin borrowing, akin to "cup".
8. From an old Latin borrowing, akin to "cup".
9. From an old Latin borrowing, akin to "cup".
10. From an old Latin borrowing, akin to "cup".
11. Archaic: now only used in compound words such as 'heimwee' (homesickness).
12. From a compound phrase akin to "to house"
13. From a compound phrase akin to "to house"
14. Ongel is also used for fishing hook.
15. Old and decayed.
16. Dialectally tvo/ två/ tvei (m), tvæ (f), tvau (n).
17. The cognate means 'snake'.
18. The cognate means 'snake'.
See also
★
Germanic verb and its various subordinated articles.
★
Language families and languages
★
Non-Indo-European roots of Germanic languages
★
List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents
★
Germanization and
Anglicization
★
Germanic placenames
External links
★
Germanic Lexicon Project
★
''Bibliographie der Schreibsprachen'': Bibliography of medieval written forms of High and Low German and Dutch
★
Ethnologue Report for Germanic
★
Germanic Verb Conjugations - German, Dutch & Swedish
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