The 'Greeks' (
Greek: Έλληνες []) are a
nation and
ethnic group who have populated
Greece and the various historical centers of the Greek world from the
17th century BC to the present day. Today they are primarily found in the
Balkan peninsula of southeastern
Europe, the
Greek islands,
Cyprus, and the
Greek diaspora.
Greek colonies and communities have been historically established in most corners of the
Mediterranean but Greek people have always been centered around the
Aegean coasts, where the
Greek language has been spoken since antiquity. Until the early
20th century Greeks were uniformly distributed between the Greek peninsula, the western coast of
Asia Minor,
Pontus, and
Constantinople, regions which coincided to a large extent with the borders of the
Byzantine Empire of the late
11th century and the Eastern Mediterranean areas of ancient
Greek colonization. In the aftermath of the
Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922) in
1923, a large-scale population exchange between Greece and
Turkey transferred and confined ethnic Greeks almost entirely into the borders of the modern Greek state, that is, in areas where groups of
Greek-speaking
Indo-Europeans first established themselves about
1500 BC, as well as in Cyprus. Other ethnic Greek populations can be found from
Southern Italy to the
Caucasus and
diaspora communities in a number of other countries. Today, the vast majority of Greeks are at least nominally adherents of
Greek Orthodoxy.
[2]
Identity of the Greek people
The
Greek language has been spoken in the Greek peninsula (i.e. the southern
Balkans) for over 3,500 years (and in western Asia Minor for a little less),
[3] and has an unbroken literary history which makes it one of the oldest surviving branches of the Indo-European family of languages. From ancient Greece the Greeks have inherited a sophisticated culture and language documented over almost three millennia.
[4] Modern Greek is recognizably the same as the language of
Athens under
Pericles in the 5th century BC. Few languages can demonstrate such continuity.
The terms used to define Greekness have varied throughout history. By Western standards, the term "Greeks" has traditionally referred to any native speakers of the Greek language (whether Mycenaean, Byzantine or modern Greek).
Byzantine Greeks valued the classical tradition, considered themselves the political heirs of
Rome, and deemed themselves the ethnic, cultural, and literary heirs of ancient Greece. The use of the older self-descriptive ethnic term "Hellenes" revived during the era following the Greco-Latin clashes between the
Byzantine Empire and the Western
Crusaders in the 12th century. It regained some popularity through its use by late
Byzantine Emperors and scholars such
Gemistus Pletho and
Ciriaco Pizzecolli. It became fairly common with the emergence, in the late 18th century, of the nation-state and its gradual consolidation, but it was not until the early 20th century that its popular use was firmly re-established.
The Greeks today are a nation in the meaning of an
''ethnos'' (έθνος in Greek), defined by posessing
Greek culture, and having a Greek
mother tongue, than by
citizenship,
religion or by being subjects to any particular
country. However, the Greeks are also defined as a ''genos'' (γένος in Greek) in the sense that they also share a common ancestry. The word 'Greek' also referred to the
Eastern Orthodox Christian inhabitants of the
Rum Millet of the
Ottoman Empire.
Greece became the first country in the Balkans to come into being, both as a nation-state and breaking away from the Ottoman Empire. The Greek revolutionary movement formed its own definition of Greekness out of the Byzantine and ancient Greek cultural heritage along with the influences of western nationalism. This attracted foreign support from the
Philhellenes (meaning ''friends of the Greeks'').
Mycenaean Greeks
The
Mycenaean proto-Greeks were probably the first historical people to arrive in the area now referred to as 'Greece' (the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula) in the 16th century BCE and the first that can be considered 'Greek' as an ethnic identity taking into account the
Linear B syllabary (used for writing
Mycenaean) as the earliest attested form of Greek. There are clear elements of cultural continuity through the
Greek Dark Ages (
1200 BC -
800 BC), until the advent of
Classical Greece (800 BCE onwards) and the rise of the
Polis and in particular
Athens. For example, in Homer's epic poems The
Iliad and the
Odyssey - which describe the epic
Battle of Troy, it is quite clear that he views the Greeks of
Prehistory as the forefathers of the early Classical Civilization he inhabited, the likes of
Achilles and
Odysseus were viewed by Athenians as well as others as prime-examples of the ideal
citizen of a Polis.
These elements of self-identification on its own clearly constitutes cultural continuity, but there are other elements as well that solidify this idea - The First being that Mycenaean
Architecture echoes influence from other civilizations around the basin, as well as the Mycenaeans' own particular style (owing as much as to limitations of the Geography of the area (see:
Geography of Greece), that would eventually lead to the formation of
Classical Greek Architecture and
Hellenistic Architecture, for example, the ruins of the columns at
Knossos echoing a very archaic version of the
Doric style of Architecture so widely used in the Classical period.
Religion is another factor, with the Mycenaeans own pantheon of gods mirroring in many ways the pantheon of that of the Classical Greeks, this influence defined not only culture but part of Classical Greece's value system as well as their
Art. There is also clear linguistic continuity between the language of
Proto-Greek and the various dialects of Classical Greece. In particular, the Greek language written in the
Linear B script is clearly an archaic form of the latter
Koine Greek language.
These elements combined together do not amount to say, the same cultural output and continuity that Modern Greeks feel with Classical,
Hellenistic and
Byzantine periods of
Greek History, but they nevertheless constitute the beginnings of the Greek identity, and the foundation, albeit in comparison to 5th century Athens a basic one, of Greece's Pagan religion,
language,
architecture and
art.
Classical and Hellenistic
Kouros of the Archaic period, Thebes Archaeological Museum.
states that the Athenians declared, before the
battle of Plataea, that they would not go over to
Mardonius, because in the first place, they were bound to avenge the burning of the
Acropolis; and, secondly, they would not betray their fellow Greeks, to whom they were bound by:
★ A common language ( ''homoglosson'' – the use of one of the dialects of the Greek language),
★ Common blood ( ''homaimon'' – descent from
Hellen, son of
Deucalion),
★ Common
shrines,
statues and
sacrifices (practice of the
ancient Greek religion – compare the Christian Greek and Demotic term ''omothriskon''), and
★ Common habits and customs.
As
Thucydides observes that the name of
Hellas spread from a valley in
Thessaly to the Greek-speaking peoples after the formation of the text of
Homer (the ''Panellenes'' of
Il. 2.530 are the troops of Thessaly,
contrasting with the
Achaeans), not long before his own time. This places the idea in the
Archaic period, when Greeks discovered that the world was wider, wealthier, and more cultured than they had imagined. Homer's
Trojan War is, indeed, a conflict among Greeks: the
Trojans speak Greek (although most modern historians believe they were more likely an
Anatolian people, based mostly on later translations of the story by late writers), bear Greek names, and worship the Greek gods; and
Priam is descended from
Zeus (see
Alaksandus). The
Carians are the only people Homer considers ''barbarophonoi''.
Hellen, son of Deucalion, combined into one group the smaller tribes that participated in the
Delphic Amphictyon, such as the
Aeolians, the
Achaeans, and the
Dorians.
As early as the 5th century BCE,
Isocrates, after speaking of common origin and worship, says: "the name Hellenes suggests no longer a race but an intelligence, and... the title Hellenes is applied rather to those who share our culture than to those who share a common blood".
4.50.
After the 4th century BCE and
Alexander the Great's conquest of the East, Greek became the ''
lingua franca'' of the East
Mediterranean region and was widely spoken by educated non-Greeks.
Byzantine Greeks
Main articles: Byzantine Greeks
After the creation of the Byzantine Empire, Greek culture changed from Hellenic (Greek
pagan) to Eastern Roman (Greek Christian culture), and the word "Hellene" became associated with the pagan past. Distinctions of nationality still existed in the empire, but became secondary to religious considerations as the renewed empire used Christianity to maintain its cohesion. However, the Byzantine Empire was dominated by the Greek element to such an extent that Emperor
Heraclius (
575 CE -
641 CE) decided to make Greek the official language. From then on, the Roman and Greek cultures were virtually fused in the East. By that time, the Latin West had began referring to Byzantium as "Empire of the Greeks" (Imperium Graecorum).
Greek nationalism re-emerged in the 11th century within specific circles and became more forceful after the fall of Constantinople to the
Crusaders of the
Fourth Crusade in
1204, and the establishment of a number of Greek kingdoms (such as the
Empire of Nicaea and the
Despotate of Epirus). When the empire was revived in
1261, it became essentially a Greek national state. Adherence to
Greek Orthodox rites and the Greek language, became the defining characteristic of the Greek people.
Greeks in the Ottoman Empire
Under the Ottoman Empire, religion was the defining characteristic of "national" groups (''milletler''), so "Greeks" (''Rumlar'') were defined by the Ottomans as members of the Greek Orthodox Church, regardless of their language or ethnic origin. Conversely, those who adopted
Islam during that period were considered 'Turks', regardless of their language or origin. Yet, the Greeks themselves upheld the autocephalous concept whereby they maintained their unique ethno-religious identity and consistently distinguished themselves from other non-Greek Orthodox Christian populations. However, some Greeks such as
Alexander Ypsilanti, expected non-Greek populations such as the
Moldavians and the
Wallachians to rise for
Greek independence because they were Greek Orthodox Christians. However, both the Moldavians and the Wallachians were cognizant of their non-Greek identities and refused to contribute.
Modern independence
This strong relation between Greek national identity and Greek Orthodox religion continued after the creation of the modern Greek state in
1830, and when the
Treaty of Lausanne was signed between Greece and Turkey in
1923, the two countries agreed to use religion as the determinant for ethnic identity. However, in many important respects, the Greek state adhered from its founding to remarkably
secular principles. For instance,
Jews were granted full citizens rights in 1830, the year Greece's independence was formally recognized, thus making Greece the second state in Europe (after
France) with an
emancipated Jewish community.
Today, the deeper integration of Greece into the Western strategic system and the effects of migration (both emigration from Greece in the
1950s and
1960s, and immigration into Greece in more recent years) have led to a perception of
multiculturalism similar to that of Western European nations.
Names used for the Greek people
''Main Article:
Names of the Greeks''.
Family group on a grave marker from Athens, National Archaeological Museum, Athens
Throughout the centuries, the Greeks have been known by a number of names, including:
★ 'Pelasgians' (Πελασγοί) - The ancient Greek references to the
Pelasgians are confusing; however some ancient Greek and Roman writers describe them as Greeks.
[5][6]
★ 'Hellenes' (Έλληνες) - In mythology, Hellen, son of
Deucalion and
Pyrrha, received from the
nymph Orseis three sons,
Aeolus,
Dorus and
Xuthus. Aeolus and Dorus, and two sons of Xuthus,
Achaeus and
Ion were the legendary founders, respectively, of the four principal tribes of Hellas, the Aeolians,
Dorians, Achaeans and
Ionians. Originally, only a small tribe in Thessaly were called ''Hellenes'', but the word soon extended to the rest of the peninsula and came to represent all Greek people. In early Christian times it was sometimes used to mean "
pagans". It remains in Greece today, the primary national name.
★ 'Greeks/Grecs' (Γραικοί) - In mythology,
Graecus was the brother of
Latinus and nephew to Hellen. It was the name of a
Boeotian tribe that migrated to the
Italian peninsula in the 8th century BCE and probably through contact with natives there brought the term to represent all ''Hellenes'', which then established itself in Italy and in the West in general.
Aristotle and
Apollodorus mention that it was the name used by Greeks before adopting the name
Hellenes
★ 'Romioi' (Ρωμιοί) - ''Romans'' is the political name by which the Byzantine Greeks called themselves during
Late Antiquity and the
Middle Ages. In parts of mainland Greece and Asia Minor, the use of this name survived well in the 20th century. The name in antiquity signified the inhabitants of the city of
Rome in
Italy, but with the elevation of the Greeks in the Roman Empire, it soon lost its connection with the
Latins and acquired a completely different definition.
Roman Emperor Caracalla with his
Constitutio Antoniniana (212) granted all free people in the Roman Empire citizenship. The term ''Roman'' (''Romaios'') represented for the Greeks their Roman citizenship and their Hellenic ancestry. The word ''Romaioi'' came to represent the Greek inhabitants of the Byzantine Empire. It remains still in use today in Greece, being the most popular national name after ''Hellene'' and in Turkey to signify the Greek Orthodox minority. It is found also in the
Koran; one ''Surah'' is entitled ''Ar-Rum'' meaning the eastern Romans, Byzantines, or the Greeks.
★ 'Achaeans', '
Argives', and '
Danaans' are names used interchangeably by Homer, to signify the Greek allied forces.
★ 'Yavan' or '
Javan', traditionally in Hebrew, Javan was the name of the tribe (and then the nation) which, according to the Torah, migrated from early Biblical times to establish the Balkan peninsula.
★ 'Yunan' (Ίωνες), and
Yavana were names used by
Indians who encountered Alexander the Great and his successors who ruled areas of Central Asia. Originally from the
Persian Yauna, itself a transliteration of the Greek
Ionia, is the name by which the Greeks are known in the East today. The term became established in
Asia from the Persians, who in contact with the Ionian tribes in western Asia Minor in the 6th century BC, extended the name to all ''Hellenes''.
History of the Greeks
The history of the Greek people is closely associated with the
history of Greece, Constantinople, and Asia Minor. During the Ottoman rule of Greece, a number of Greek enclaves around the Mediterranean were cut off from the core, notably in Southern Italy, the Caucasus, Syria and Egypt. By the early 20th century, over half of the overall Greek-speaking population was settled in Asia Minor (now Turkey).
During the 20th century, a huge wave of migration to the
United States,
Australia,
Canada and elsewhere created a Greek diaspora.
Modern and ancient Greeks
The most obvious link between modern and ancient Greeks is the
language, which has enjoyed a continuous and documented tradition from at least the 14th century BCE to the present day, some 3400 years. There has been no break such as the one between
Latin and the modern
Romance languages and the only language which enjoys comparable continuity of tradition is
Chinese.
[7]
Many modern scientists and scholars (e.g. anthropologists like C. Coon and geneticists like
Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza) have supported the notion that there is a dominant racial connection to the ancient Greeks. Other scholars, notably popular in
Nazi Germany, have supported the refuted theories of the 19th century historian
Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer, who claimed that the ancient Greeks genetically disappeared at some point, and as modern Greeks have no genetic or cultural connection to them, Europe owes them nothing. It should be noted that Fallmerayer's theories specifically aimed at the Greeks of Morea (Peloponnese), which at the time constituted less than a sixth of the overall Greek population, a fact which was being constantly ignored by his later supporters. His essays were refuted by numerous scholars of his time and were characterised by the
Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities as biased and unscientific.
Culture
Language
Greeks speak the
Greek language, an
Indo-European language which forms a branch in itself, although seems to be more closely related to
Armenian (see also
Graeco-Armenian) and the
Indo-Iranian languages.
[8] Greek literature has a continuous history of nearly 3,000 years, and has been written in the
Greek alphabet since the 9th century BCE.
Greek demonstrates several linguistic features that are shared with
Romanian,
Albanian and
Bulgarian (see
Balkan sprachbund), and has absorbed numerous foreign words (primarily of western European or
Turkish origin). Due to the movement of
Philhellenism in the 19th century in the rest of Europe, which emphasized the modern Greeks' ancient heritage, these foreign influences were excluded from official use via the usage of ''
Katharevusa'', a somewhat artificial form of Greek purged of all foreign influence and words, as the official language of the Greek state. In 1976, however, the Greek parliament voted to make ''Dhimotiki'', the modern dialect of Athens, the official language, making ''Katharevusa'' obsolete.
Some members of the diaspora cannot speak the Greek language, but are still considered Greeks by ethnic origin or descent.
Greek has a wide variety of dialects of varying levels of mutual intelligibility, which in addition to official variety (Standard Modern Greek - Κοινή Νεοελληνική), include the
Cypriot,
Pontic,
Cappadocian,
Griko (
Calabrian Greek) and
Tsakonian (the only surviving representative of ancient
Doric Greek) varieties.
Yevanic, also known as Romaniote or Judeo-Greek, is the language of the Greek Jews (
Romaniotes), and survives in small communities in Greece,
New York and
Israel.
In addition to Greek, many Greeks in Greece are bilingual in other languages. Such languages include
Arvanitic,
Aromanian (also known as Vlach),
Slavic (also known as ''Dopia''),
Russian,
Italian,
English, and
Turkish. In the diaspora, most Greeks also speak the languages of the areas in which they live.
Religion
The vast majority of Greeks are
Eastern Orthodox Christians, belonging to the
Greek Orthodox Church. There are also small groups adhering to other Christian denominations or religions. The main non-Orthodox Christian denomination are
Roman Catholics, and more recently
Evangelicals and other
Protestant groups. Since the days of the
Ottoman Empire there has been a
Muslim minority within Greek society, and for much of its history Greece has had a
Jewish community.
See also:
★
Roman Catholicism in Greece
★
Islam in Greece
★
Jews in Greece
Symbols
The most widely used symbol used by Greeks is the
flag of Greece, which features nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white representing the nine syllables of the Greek national motto "Ελευθερία ή θάνατος" (''
Eleftheria i thanatos'' – freedom or death), which was also the motto of the
Greek War of Independence. The blue square in the upper hoist-side corner bears a white cross, which represents Greek Orthodox Christianity. The Greek flag is also widely used by the Greek community in Cyprus (which has officially adopted a neutral flag so as to ease ethnic tensions with the Turkish minority – see
flag of Cyprus), and by the Greek minority in
Albania, which has led to ethnic clashes with the ethnic
Albanian majority.
The pre-1978 (and first) flag of Greece, which features a cross on a blue background, is widely used as an alternative to the official flag, and they are often flown together. The
national emblem of Greece features a blue
escutcheon with a white cross totally surrounded by two laurel branches. A common design involves the current flag of Greece and the pre-1978 flag of Greece with crossed flagpoles and the national emblem placed in front.
Another highly recognizable and popular Greek symbol is the
double-headed eagle, the imperial emblem of the
Byzantine Empire and a common symbol in Eastern Europe. It is not currently part of the modern Greek flag or coat of arms, although it is officially the insignia of the
Greek Army and the flag of the
Church of Greece. It had been incorporated in the Greek coat of arms between 1925 and 1926.
Names
:''See:
Greek surname''
Greek surnames are most commonly patronymics. Occupation, characteristic and location/origin-based surnames names also occur. Due to the lack of written records prior to the 19th century, surnames were not formally maintained and could be changed by occupation or characteristic. After the advent of widespread written records, surnames have remained constant handed down from father to children.
Timeline of Greek migrations
Distribution of the Hellenic races
''Some key historical events have also been included for context, but 'this timeline is not intended to cover history not related to migrations'. There is more information on the historical context of these migrations in
History of Greece.''
★ 'Pre-29th century BCE' — Greek tribes migrate into the Balkans.
★ '20th century BCE' — Settlements established on the Greek Peninsula
★ '17th century BCE' — Decline of
Minoan civilization, possibly due to the eruption of
Thera. Settlement of Achaeans and Ionians in the Greek peninsula (
Mycenaean civilization).
★ '13th century BCE' — First
colonies established in Asia Minor.
★ '11th century BCE' — Doric tribes move into peninsular Greece.
★ '9th century BCE' — Major colonization of Asia Minor.
★ '8th century BCE' — First major colonies established in
Sicily and Southern Italy.
★ '6th century BCE' — Colonies established across the Mediterranean and the
Black Sea
★ '4th century BCE' — Campaign of Alexander the Great; Greek colonies established in newly founded cities of
Ptolemaic Egypt and Asia.
★ '2nd century BCE' — Conquest of Greece by the
Roman Empire. Migrations of Greeks to Rome.
★ '4th century' — Establishment of
Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. Migrations of Greeks throughout the Empire, mainly towards Constantinople.
★ '7th century' Slavic conquest of several parts of Greece, Greek migrations to Southern Italy take place. Byzantine Emperors capture main Slavic bodies and transfer them to Cappadocia. Bosphorus re-populated by Macedonian and Cypriot Greeks.
★ '8th century' Byzantine dissolution of surviving Sclaviniai and full recovery of the Greek peninsula.
★ '9th century' Retromigrations of Greeks from all parts of the Empire (mainly from Southern Italy and Sicily) into parts of Greece that were depopulated by the
Slavic Invasions (mainly western Peloponnese and Thessaly).
★ '13th century' — Byzantine Empire dissolves, Constantinople taken by the Fourth Crusade; becoming the capital of the
Latin Empire. Reconquered after a long struggle by the Empire of Nicaea, but fragments remain separated. Migrations between Asia Minor, Constantinople and mainland Greece take place.
★ '15th century' — Conquest of Byzantium by the Ottoman Empire. Greek diaspora into Europe begins. Ottoman settlements in Greece. Phanariot Greeks occupy high posts in Eastern European millets.
★ '1830s' — Creation of the
Modern Greek State. Immigration to the
New World begins. Large-scale migrations from Constantinople and Asia Minor to Greece take place.
★ '1913' — Macedonia partitioned; Unorganized migrations of Greeks, Bulgarians and Turks towards their respective states.
★ '1910s' — approximately 353,000
Pontian Greeks killed
[3].
★ '1919' —
Treaty of Neuilly; Greece and Bulgaria exchange populations, with some exceptions.
★ '1923' — Treaty of Lausanne; Greece and Turkey agree to exchange populations with limited exceptions of the Greeks in Constantinople, Imbros, Tenedos and the Muslim minority (mainly Greeks, Pomaks, Roms and Turks) of
Western Thrace. 1,5 million of Asia Minor and Pontic Greeks settle in Greece, and some 450 thousands of Muslims settle in Turkey.
★ '1947' —
Communist regime in
Romania begins evictions of the Greek community, approx. 75,000 migrate.
★ '1948' —
Greek Civil War. Tens of thousands of Greek
communists and their families flee into
Eastern Bloc nations. Thousands settle in
Tashkent.
★ '1950s' — Massive emigration of Greeks to
West Germany, the United States, Australia, Canada, and other countries.
★ '1955' —
Istanbul Pogrom against Greeks. Exodus of Greeks from the city accelerates; less than 2000 remain today.
★ '1958' — Large Greek community in
Alexandria flees
Nasser's regime in
Egypt.
★ '1960s' —
Republic of Cyprus created, as an independent Greek state, under Greek, Turkish and British protection. Economic emigration continues.
★ '1974' —
Turkish invasion of Cyprus. Almost all Greeks living in Northern Cyprus flee to the south and the United Kingdom.
★ '1980s' — Many civil war refugees were allowed to re-emigrate to Greece. Reverse migration of Greeks from Germany also begins.
★ '1990s' — Collapse of
Soviet Union. Approx. 100,000 ethnic Greeks migrate from
Georgia,
Armenia, southern
Russia and Albania to Greece.
★ '2000' — Greece fully implements the
Schengen Treaty.
★ '2000s' — Some statistics indicate the beginning of a trend of reverse migration of Greeks from the United States and Australia.
Miscellaneous topics
★
Demographics of Greece
★
Byzantine Empire
★
Greek American
★
Greek Australian
★
Greek Canadians
★
Greek Cypriots
★
Greek mythology
★
Greeks in Great Britain
★
Greeks in Hungary
★
Pontic Greeks
★
Greeks in Romania
★
Greeks in Turkey
★
Hellenistic civilization
★
List of Ancient Greeks
★
List of Greek Americans
★
List of Greeks
★
Karamanlides
★
Sarakatsani
★
Urums
★
Kalash
★
Genetic history of Europe
References
1. United States Department of State: Background Note: Greece
2. Encarta: Greece
3. World Book 2005, "Greece"
4. Encyclopædia Britannica 2006, "History of Greece"
5. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, ''Roman Antiquities, Book 1, 17'' (★ class=wikiexternal target=_blank>.html LacusCurtius).
6. Ovid, ''Metamorphoses, Book 12.1'' (Perseus).
7. Browning, R. ''Medieval and Modern Greek'', Cambridge University Press, 1983. ISBN 0-521-23488-3
8. BBC: Languages across Europe: Greek
★ Peter Mackridge, Eleni Yannakakis, eds., ''Ourselves and Others : The Development of a Greek Macedonian Cultural Identity since 1912'', 1997, ISBN 1-85973-133-3.
★ Peter Bien, "Inventing Greece", ''Journal of Modern Greek Studies'' '23':2 (October 2005), pp. 217-234.
★ Michael Herzfeld, ''Ours Once More: Folklore, Ideology, and the making of Modern Greece'', 1982, ISBN 0292760183
★ Victor Roudometof, "From Rum Millet to Greek Nation: Enlightenment, Secularization, and National Identity in Ottoman Balkan Society, 1453-1821", ''Journal of Modern Greek Studies '' '16':1 (May 1998), pp. 11-48.
★ Stephen Xydis, "Medieval Origins of Modern Greek Nationalism", ''Balkan Studies'', '9' (1968), 1-20.
★ Terry Deary, Martin Brown, "Groovy Greeks", 1996, ISBN 0-590-13247-4
External links
★
Greeks on Greekness: The Construction and Uses of the Greek Past among Greeks under the Roman Empire, a conference on how Greeks imagined Greekness in relation to the past during the first two centuries of the Roman Empire.
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