'Haiti' (
IPA: ), in
Haitian Creole: ''Ayiti'', officially the 'Republic of Haiti' ('la République d'Haïti'), is a
French and Creole speaking
Latin American country located in the
Greater Antilles archipelago on the
Caribbean island of
Hispaniola, which it shares with the
Dominican Republic. Haiti includes many smaller islands such as
La Gonâve, La Tortue (
Tortuga),
Les Cayemites, Île de Anacaona, and La Grande Caye. The uninhabited island of
Navasse is claimed by both Haiti and the
United States. 'Ayiti' (Haiti) was the indigenous
Taíno or
Amerindian name for the island. Its highest point is
Pic la Selle, at 2,680 meters. The total area of Haiti is 27,750
km² (10,714 square miles) and its capital is
Port-au-Prince.
A former
French colony, Haiti became the first independent black republic and the only nation ever to form from a successful
slave rebellion. Haiti became the second non-native country in the
Americas (after the
United States) to declare its independence, on January 1, 1804.
Haiti has recently undergone a state of transition following the forced ousting of President
Jean-Bertrand Aristide on February 29, 2004. The circumstances surrounding his departure from office are disputed.
René Préval was elected president in his place on February 7, 2006, and took office in May of that year.
History
Main articles: History of Haiti
The island of
Hispaniola, of which Haiti occupies the western third, was originally inhabited by the
Taíno Arawak people.
Christopher Columbus landed at
Môle Saint-Nicolas on December 5, 1492, and claimed the island for
Spain. Nineteen days later, the ''
Santa Maria'' ran aground near the present site of
Cap-Haitien; Columbus was forced to leave 39 men, founding the settlement of
La Navidad . 'Ayiti', which means "mountainous land", is a name that was used by its early inhabitants, the Taíno-Arawak people, who also called some sections of it 'Bohio', meaning "rich villages". 'Quisqueya' is yet a third term that has been attributed to the Taínos for the island.
The Taínos were a seafaring branch of the South American Arawaks. ''Taíno'' means "the good" or "noble" in their language. A system of ''
cacicazgos'' (
chiefdoms) existed, called Marien, Maguana, Higuey, Magua and Xaragua, which could be subdivided. The ''cacicazgos'' were based on a system of
tribute, consisting of the food grown by the Taíno. Among the cultural signs that they left were cave paintings around the country, which have become touristic and nationalistic symbols of Haiti. Xaragua is modern day
Leogane, a city in the southwest.
One of the earliest leaders to fight off Spanish conquest was Queen
Anacaona, a Taíno princess from Xaragua who married Chief Caonabo, a Taíno king (''
cacique'') from Maguana. The two fought hard against the Europeans; she was captured by the Spanish and executed in front of her people. Other noted Taíno leaders from Haiti are Chief
Guacanagari, Chief
Guama and Chief
Hatuey (who later fled to Cuba and helped fight the Spaniards there). Cacique Henri, another Taíno chief, fought victoriously against the Spaniards in the Bahoruco to gain freedom for himself and his people. The town associated with this history is Anse a Pitres, near the south-eastern town of
Jacmel. The Taínos as the Europeans saw them on the island of Hispaniola are virtually extinct. The survivors that escaped death mixed with African slaves (runaways called
maroons), producing a small generation of
zambos. The
mestizo increased in number as native women conceived to European men. The Taíno bloodline in Hispaniola diluted more and more as the decades went by primarily due to the establishment of Africans and
mulattos on the island; however, it is believed that a small number of
Haitians and
Dominicans retain some native ancestry.
Colonial rule
Main articles: Saint-Domingue
Enslavement, harsh treatment of the natives, and especially epidemic diseases such as smallpox caused the Taíno population to plummet over the next quarter-century. In response, the Spanish began to import African slaves to search for gold on the island. Spanish interest in Hispaniola waned after the 1520s, when vast reserves of gold and silver were discovered in
Mexico and South America.
Fearful of pirate attacks, the king of Spain in 1609 ordered all colonists on Hispaniola to move closer to the capital city,
Santo Domingo. However, this resulted in British, Dutch and French pirates establishing bases on the island's abandoned northern and western coasts. French settlement of the island began in 1625, and in 1664
France formally claimed control of the western portion of the island. By the 1697
Treaty of Ryswick,
Spain ceded the western third of Hispaniola to France. France named its new colony
Saint-Domingue.
While the Spanish side of the island was largely neglected, the French side prospered and became the richest colony in the
Western Hemisphere, exporting large amounts of
sugar and
coffee. French colonial society contained three population groups: Europeans (about 32,000 in 1790) who held political and economic control; the ''
gens de couleur'', some 28,000 free blacks (about half of which had mulatto background) who faced second-class status; and the slaves, who numbered about 500,000.
[1] (Living outside French society were the maroons (escaped ex-slaves who formed their own settlements in the highlands.) At all times, a majority of slaves in the colony were African-born, as the very brutal conditions of slavery prevented the population from experiencing growth through natural increase.
[2] African cultures thus remained strong among slaves until the end of French rule.
Revolution
Unofficially leading the nation politically during the revolution,
Toussaint L'Ouverture is considered the father of Haiti.
Inspired by the
French Revolution, the ''gens de couleur'' pressed the colonial government for expanded rights. In October 1790, 350 revolted against the government. On
May 15,
1791, the French
National Assembly granted political rights to all blacks and mulattoes who had been born free - but did not change the status quo regarding slavery. On
August 22, 1791, slaves in the north rose against their masters near Cap-Français (now
Cap-Haïtien). This revolution spread rapidly and came under the leadership of
Toussaint L'Ouverture. He is commonly referred to as the "Black Napoleon." He soon formed alliances with the ''gens de couleur'' and the maroons, whose rights had been revoked by the French government in retaliation for the uprising.
[1]
Toussaint's armies defeated the French colonial army, but then joined forces with it in 1794, following a decree by the revolutionary French government that abolished slavery. Under Toussaint's command, the Saint-Domingue army then defeated invading Spanish and British forces. This cooperation between Toussaint and French forces ended in 1802, however, when
Napoleon sent a new invasion force designed to subdue the colony; many islanders suspected the army would also reimpose slavery. Napoleon's forces initially were successful at fighting their way onto the island, and persuaded Toussaint to a truce. He was then betrayed, captured and died in a French prison. Toussaint's arrest and the news that the French had reestablished slavery in Guadeloupe, led to the resumption of the rebellion, under the leadership of
Jean-Jacques Dessalines and
Henri Christophe, two of Toussaint's generals. Napoleon's forces were outsmarted by the combination of Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Henri Christophe, and Alexandre Petion, the "Generals of the Revolution."
Independence
Dessalines's armies won their final and decisive victory over the French forces at the
Battle of Vertières on November 18, 1803, near Cap-Haitien. On January 1, 1804 the nation declared its independence, securing its position as the second independent country in the
Americas, and the only successful
slave rebellion in world history.
[4] Dessalines was its first ruler. The name ''Haiti'' was chosen in recognition of the old Arawak name for the island, Ayiti.
The new State of Haiti supported the
abolitionist cause wherever possible. Haiti aided
Francisco de Miranda and
Simón Bolívar, giving them refuge and supporting their revolutionary efforts under the condition he free Latin America's slaves. The slaveholding powers surrounding Haiti isolated the new nation under a ''
cordon sanitaire'', fearing slave revolutions of their own. The Haitian Revolution is thought to have inspired numerous slave revolts in the Caribbean, Brazil and United States. The blockade was virtually total. The
Vatican withdrew its priests from Haiti, and did not return them until 1860. France refused to recognize Haiti's independence until it agreed to pay an indemnity of 150 million ''francs'', to compensate for the losses of French planters in the revolutions, in 1833. Payment of this indemnity brought the government deeply in debt and crippled the country's economy.
In 1806, Dessalines, by now Emperor, was murdered in a power struggle with political rivals who thought him a tyrant. The nation divided into two parts, a southern republic founded by
Alexandre Pétion (mulatto), becoming the first black-led republic in the world,
[5] and a
northern kingdom under
Henri Christophe. The idea of liberty in the southern republic was as license, a fondness for idleness shared by elite and peasant. Christophe believed that liberty was the opportunity to show the world that a black nation might be equal, if not better than the white nations. Consequently, he worked the field hands under the same unrelenting military system that Toussaint had developed and that Dessalines tried to continue. He also built more than 100 schools, eight palaces, including his capital
Sans Souci and the massive
Citadelle Laferrière, the largest fortress in the Western hemisphere.
In August 1820, King Henri I (Henri Christophe) suffered a
stroke that left him partially paralyzed. When the news spread of his infirmities, the whispers of rebellion, deceit and treachery began. On October 2, 1820, the military garrison at St. Marc led a mutiny that sparked a revolt. The mutiny preempted a conspiracy of some of Christophe's most loyal generals. Some of his trusted aides took him from the palace of Sans-Souci up to his Citadel, to await the inevitable confrontation with the rebels. Christophe ordered his attendants to dress him in his formal military uniform and for two days desperately tried to raise the strength to lead out his troops. Finally, he ordered his doctor to leave the room. Shortly after he left, Christophe raised his pistol and shot himself dead through the heart.
[6]
Following Christophe's death, the nation was reunited as the Republic of Haiti under Jean-Pierre Boyer, Petion's successor. Boyer liberated the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo and united the entire island under free Haitian rule, until 1844 when the
Dominican Republic was formed as white-Catholic nation separate from Haiti for reasons of tax burdens(to pay the debt obtained from the independance of Haiti from France), discontent of the population after abuses of the Haitian army against the population and different language, culture and religion.
American occupation
Throughout the nineteenth century, Haiti was ruled by a series of presidents, most of whom remained in office only briefly. Meanwhile, the country's economy was gradually dominated by foreigners, particularly from
Germany. Concerned about German influence and growing military presence, and disturbed by the
savage public dismembering of President
Guillaume Sam by an enraged crowd, the United States invaded and occupied
[7] Haiti in 1915. The United States, in a bold effort to create order out of chaos, imposed a constitution written by future president
Franklin D. Roosevelt, and applied an old system of compulsory
corvée labor to everyone. Previously this system had been applied only to members of the poor, black majority. The occupation had many long-lasting effects on the country. United States forces built schools, roads and hospitals, and launched health campaigns that eradicated
yellow fever,
malaria, and
yaws from the island. The vast network of roads, bridges, and clean water systems drastically reshaped Haiti's infrastructure. Unfortunately, the sum of the structural changes to Haiti's systems was not enough to enable any degree of indigenous progress. The U.S. established the
Forbes Commission to investigate the lack of progress, and the Commission concluded, amongst other things that "the social forces that created (the social instability) still remain - poverty, ignorance, and the lack of a tradition or desire for orderly free government."
[7] Order and freedom could not be imposed by force of will.
As the U.S. occupation resulted in a degree of central organization of government, finance, and industry, the focus of the country shifted from the provinces to the capital, disadvantaging the loose rural socio-economic fabric of the country in favor of the major urban centers. Inevitably this created an exodus of the rural poor from the countryside. Nationalist rebels, called Cacos
[9], were simultaeously waging a persistent guerilla warfare, headed by
Charlemagne Péralte and later Dominique Batraville. As a consequence, the U.S.-controlled government created a National Guard which in future decades would become the Armée d'Haiti, and be said to commit many atrocities against its own people. Roosevelt was disenchanted with the burden and negative social aspects of trying to organize Haiti, and proceeded to implement an earlier disengagement agreement, thereby ending the U.S. occupation in 1934.
[10]
The Duvaliers
The United States left Haiti in the hands of the
mulatto minority, but in 1946
Dumarsais Estimé became the country's first black president since the US occupation began. His efforts at reform sparked disorder, and when he attempted to extend his term of office in 1950 (as most previous presidents had done) there was a coup, followed by the second formal Military Council of Government led by
Paul Magloire.
François Duvalier, also known as Papa Doc, was an ex-doctor who ruled as dictator of Haiti from 1964 to his death in 1971. In 1957, Dr.
François Duvalier ("Papa Doc") came to power in the country's first
universal suffrage election; many believed this outcome was manipulated by the army. In 1964, he declared himself president for life. Duvalier maintained control over the population through his secret police organization, the Volunteers for National Security - nicknamed the
Tonton Macoutes ("boogeymen") after a folkloric villain. This organization drew international criticism for its harsh treatment of political adversaries, both real and suspected.
[11] Upon Duvalier's death in 1971, he was succeeded by his nineteen year-old son
Jean-Claude Duvalier (nicknamed "Baby Doc") as Haiti's new president for life. The younger Duvalier regime became notorious for corruption, and was deposed in 1986, ushering in a new period of upheaval.
[12]
Roman Catholic pro-democratic movement
The unravelling of the Duvalier regime began with a popular movement supported by the local church and set in motion by the visit of
Pope John Paul II in 1983, who before embarking his plane gave a rousing speech ending with an angry exclamation: "Things must change here!"
[13] In 1984, anti-government riots broke out throughout the nation and the Haitian Catholic Bishops' Conference initiated a literacy program designed to prepare the Haitian public for participation in the electoral process.
[13]
Aristide
Jean-Bertrand Aristide, a former
Roman Catholic priest, first became President of Haiti in 1991. He would remain President for three terms until he was deposed in 2004 in a violent revolt.
The priest
Jean-Bertrand Aristide was elected president in 1990, but was deposed in a coup shortly after his inauguration in 1991. There followed three years of control by a military junta led by
Raoul Cedras, before a second US invasion and occupation in 1994 returned Aristide to power. One of the first acts of the re-installed government of Aristide was to disband the army.
[15]
Aristide was succeeded by a one-time ally and former
prime minister,
René Préval, in 1996. Aristide was the first democratically elected president in Haitian history. Préval's administration is notable for the fact that he was the first president in Haiti's history to constitutionally succeed a former president, serve a complete term, and leave his office voluntarily at the prescribed time. Every previous president had either died in office, been assassinated, been deposed, overstayed his prescribed term, or been installed by a foreign power.
MINUSTAH in 2006.
(photo by Patrick-André Perron)
Aristide returned to office in 2001 after elections that were boycotted by many of his opponents, who accused his party,
Fanmi Lavalas, of counting votes improperly in a previous senatorial election, as well as threatening critics. Aristide denied the charges and accused his opponents of accepting U.S. assistance, and plotting to overthrow his government. The opposition mostly denied this, but many of its members continually called for his early resignation.
In February 2004, following months of large-scale protests against what critics charged was an increasingly corrupt and violent rule,
violence spread through Haiti, involving conflicts between the government and various rebel groups. Under pressure from both foreign governments and internal sources, Aristide left the country for the
Central African Republic on February 29. Aristide was kidnapped by agents of the United States government, while at the time United States and some of Aristide's own security agents claimed that Aristide had agreed to leave the country willingly and that it had escorted him to Africa for his own protection.
[16] As Aristide departed the country, many members of his government fled or went into hiding, and the United States again sent Marines into Port-au-Prince. After Aristide's departure, Supreme Court Chief Justice
Boniface Alexandre succeeded to the presidency appointed by a council of elders and supported by the United States, Canada, and France.
In the months following the February Coup, the country was engulfed in violence between the interim government's forces and Lavalas supporters, and many members of the Lavalas party were sent to jail, exiled, or killed. Over 10,000 workers in Haitian civil enterprises lost their jobs following the coup.
[17]
Elections were held in February 2006, and
René Préval was again elected president. Preval has promised to bring peace and stability to the country. (See
Haitian elections, 2006.)
Politics
Main articles: Politics of Haiti
The politics of Haiti takes place in the framework of a
presidential republic, and of a pluriform multi-party system, whereby the
President of Haiti is the
head of state, while the Prime Minister is
head of government.
Executive power is exercised by the government.
Legislative power is vested in both the
government and the two chambers of the
National Assembly of Haïti.
Departments, arrondissements, and communes
Main articles: Administrative divisions of Haiti
Haiti is divided into 10
departments.
Please note that the names of departmental capital cities are provided in parentheses.
The departments are further divided into 41
arrondissements, and 133
communes which serve as second and third level administrative divisions.
Departments of Haiti
.
Geography
Map of Haiti
Haiti is situated on the western part of the second largest island in the Greater Antilles, Hispaniola. Haiti is the third largest country in the Caribbean only behind
Cuba and the Dominican Republic respectively. Haiti at its closest point is only 80km away from Cuba. Haiti's terrain consists mainly of rugged mountains with small coastal plains and river valleys. The country's largest crop-producing and one of Haiti's most fertile river valleys is the Plaine de l'Artibonite. The east and central part of the island is a large elevated plateau. The highest point in Haiti is
Pic la Selle at 2,680 m (8,793
feet). The 360-km (224-
mile) border is shared with the
Dominican Republic. Haiti also contains several islands. The famous island of
Tortuga (Île de la Tortue) is located off the coast of northern Haiti. The
arrondissement of
La Gonâve is located on the island of the same name, in the
Gulf of Gonave. Gonave Island is moderately populated by rural villagers.
Île à Vache (Island of The Cow) is located off the tip of southwestern Haiti. It is a rather lush island with many beautiful sights. Also part of Haiti are the
Cayemites and Ile de Anacaona.
In 1925, Haiti was a lush tropical paradise, with 60% of its original forest covering the lands and mountainous regions. Since then, the population has cut down all but 2% of its forest cover, and in the process has destroyed fertile farmland soils, while contributing to
desertification.
[18] Erosion has been severe in the mountainous areas. Pictures from space glaringly show the stark difference in forestation between Haiti and the neighboring Dominican Republic. Most Haitian logging is done to produce
charcoal, the country's chief source of fuel. The plight of Haiti's forests has attracted international attention, and has led to numerous reforestation efforts, but these have met with little success to date.
Haiti flood
Environmental issues
In addition to soil erosion, the deforestation has also caused periodic flooding, as seen on September 17, 2004.
Tropical storm Jeanne skimmed the north coast of Haiti, leaving 3,006 people dead in flooding and mudslides, mostly in the city of
Gonaïves.
[19] Earlier that year in May, floods killed over 3,000 people on Haiti's southern border with the Dominican Republic.
[20]
Jared Diamond attributes many of Haiti's political problems to its mismanagement of its ecosystems, particularly deforestation; see ''. In
Port-Salut the river is filled with mountain rocks caused by severe erosion over the years. Currently Haiti is seeking to implement a biofuel solution to its energy problems.
[21]
There has been a dispute between the United States and Haiti about
Navassa Island (Navasse), which both countries claim. The Haitian claim relies on documentation that Navassa became part of Haiti after a 1697 agreement between France and Spain that gave France the western third of Hispaniola plus nearby islands, including Navassa Island. The United States claims the island pursuant to its own
Guano Islands Act of 1856.
Economy
Main articles: Economy of Haiti
Haiti remains one of the least-developed countries in the
Western Hemisphere (along with
Bolivia). Comparative social and economic indicators show Haiti falling behind other low-income developing countries (particularly in the hemisphere) since the 1980s. Haiti now ranks 154th of 177 countries in the UN’s
Human Development Index (2006). According to the CIA World Factbook, about 80% of the population lives in poverty. Haiti is the only country in the Americas on the
WHO list of
Least Developed Countries.
[22] However, since the recent presidential seating, Haiti's economy has been increasing, and may be on the upsurge. Nevertheless, kidnappings have been increasing rapidly over the last year. Despite this Haiti has a very low murder rate in the Caribbean with a 2005 murder rate of approximately 11.5 per 100,000 inhabitants. The vast majority of the murders have taken place solely in the capital. Rural areas of the country are relatively safe. The Dominican Republic's murder rate of approximately 26.7 per 100,000 inhabitants and
Jamaica's regional-record murder rate of 62 per 100,000 inhabitants is extremely high to that of Haiti's.
[23]
Nearly 70.5% of all Haitians depend on the agricultural sector, which consists mainly of small-scale subsistence farming. The country has experienced little formal job creation over the past decade, although the
informal economy is growing. It has consistently ranked among the most corrupt countries in the world on the
Corruption Perceptions Index.
Under the second Aristide administration and the Alexandre-Latortue administration, difficulty in reaching agreements with international sponsors denied Haiti badly needed budget and developmental assistance. In addition to these geopolitical obstacles, another major impediment to development during the last twenty years has been the repeated episodes of violence that have rocked the country. While there was relative calm under the governments of
Fanmi Lavalas, this may not have been sufficiently long-lived to convince foreign investors to commit significant capital to Haiti.
Tourism
Due to recent political instability, tourism - once a significant industry - has suffered in Haiti, with the exception of
Labadee, a port located on the country's northern coast. Labadee is a resort owned by
Royal Caribbean International. Although sometimes described in advertisements as an island in its own right, it is actually contiguous with the rest of Hispaniola. Labadee is fenced off from the surrounding area. The cruise ships anchor offshore, and passengers are tendered to the resort, often without being told they are in Haiti. Attractions include a Haitian Flea Market, traditional Haitian dance performances, numerous beaches, watersports, and a waterpark. Despite obstacles, Haiti's rich culture and history has allowed the country to maintain a moderate and potentially rising tourist industry.
Progress
However, Haiti has benefited in a rather solid economic partnership with
Venezuela. This recently-forged friendship between Venezuelan president
Hugo Chavez and Haitian president
Rene Preval has resulted in various economic agreements. After a visit by Chavez in March 2007, Venezuela and Cuba announced that they have created a '$1 Billion fund' to develop energy, health, and infrastructure in Haiti. As part of this deal, 4
power plants will be constructed in Port-au-Prince, Cap-Haitien, and Gonaives, increasing the country's power production by 160 MW by the end of 2007. An
oil refinery will also be constructed in Haiti, with a production capacity of 10,000 barrels of oil per day. In the meantime, Venezuela has increased the amount of petroleum it provides Haiti to 14,000 barrels per day, at the same terms afforded to
ALBA member countries - these terms are more favorable than the Petrocaribe terms. Venezuela's assistance to Haiti is founded upon a historic act where the newly-independent Haiti welcomed and tended to first
Francisco de Miranda, then to
Simón Bolívar and provided both with military assistance in the liberation of much of South America. Haiti's
Latin American alliance provides the country with much of its needed aid. Cuba has thanked Haiti for consistently voting in the
United Nations General Assembly against the
embargo put upon Cuba by the United States. Since Preval's induction, the economy has been on a sizeable increase.
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Haiti
About 95% of Haitians are of predominantly
West-African descent. The rest are white or of
Mulatto descent, with a moderate number of
Arab heritage (primarily
Syrian and
Lebanese). A number of Haitians are believed to possess both African and Taino/Arawak heritage due to the history of the island; however, the number of native-descended Haitians is not known. There is a very small percentage within the minority who are of
Asian descent; nearly all are immigrant residents. The very small number of Asians in Haiti are virtually all concentrated in the country's largest urban areas (primarily Port-au-Prince).
Haitian diaspora
As with many other poor Caribbean nations, there is a large diaspora, which includes a lot of illegal immigration to nearby countries. Millions of Haitians live abroad, chiefly in the
Dominican Republic,
Bahamas,
Cuba,
Puerto Rico, the
Lesser Antilles,
Canada,
France, and the
United States.
In the United States
There are large numbers of Haitians who inhabit the "Little Haiti" section of Miami. In New York City, the Brooklyn neighborhoods of Flatbush, Crown Heights, and Canarsie are home to many Haitians. In the Borough of Queens, Jamaica, Queens Village, Rosedale and Cambria Heights have large Haitian populations. Many successful Haitians move east to Long Island, where Elmont and other towns have seen many new residents. Other enclaves that contain Haitians include Boston, Cambridge, Malden and Brockton Massachusetts; Chicago, Illinois, Orlando, Florida, and Newark, New Jersey and its surrounding areas.
Culture
Main articles: Culture of Haiti
Fishing boat with religious writings
Haitian culture is a mix of primarily African and French elements with minor influences from Spanish and
Taíno culture. The African and European influence is greatest however in nearly all aspects of society. Haiti's official languages are
French and
Haitian Creole (''Kreyòl Ayisyen''). Nearly all Haitians speak the latter, a
creole based primarily on French and African languages, with some
Spanish,
Portuguese, and
Taíno influences. Spanish is spoken near the border with the
Dominican Republic, and is increasingly being spoken in more westward areas, as
Venezuelan,
Cuban, and
Dominican trade influence Haitian affairs, and Haiti becomes increasingly involved in Latin American transactions.
Religion
Wyclef Jean
is the official state religion in which the majority, approximately 80%, of the population professes. An estimated 20 percent of the population follows the teachings of various
Protestant churches. Many Haitians, especially Roman Catholics, also practice
Vodou[24] (Voodoo), almost always in addition to traditional Catholic observances. Vodou followers believe that spirits called "loa" protect their children (vodou believers) from misfortune. Many Haitians, ''mainly Protestants'', oppose vodou and the related reliance on sorcery and witchcraft
[24]. Haitian vodou is very similar to the
Santería practiced in Cuba and the Dominican Republic, and the
Candomblé practiced in
Brazil.
Strike-through textStrike-through textMusic
Main articles: Music of Haiti
Haiti's most well known music style is
kompa, a very vibrant music and dance genre similar to the music of their Cuban neighbors, but often employing African drumming, modern guitars/synthesized sounds, saxophones, and lyrics sung in Haitian Creole.
Merengue of the Dominican Republic is also popular in Haiti. The origins of merengue are unclear and the origins vary depending on which country the story is from however many Haitians believe it is an offshoot variant of Haitian
Méringue, a similar-sounding style. Nonetheless, Haitians enjoy both sounds.
Rasin and
kadans are two other popular genres in the country. Other popular genres in Haiti include
Salsa music,
Trinidadian Soca, and
zouk (a combination of
kompa and music from the
French Antilles). Musicians such as
T-Vice, Djakout Mizik, Bonga, Zenglen, NuLook, K-dans, and
Carimi perform regularly in the
United States and
Québec.
Sweet Micky is a praised legend of Kompa music. The most celebrated Haitian musical artist of today is the Haitian-born
Wyclef Jean.
Haiti is also famous for its distinctive art, notably painting and sculpture. See
Haitian art, and
Cuisine
Haitian cuisine.
is influenced in large part by the methods and foods involved in
French cuisine as well as by staples originating from
African and
Taíno cuisine, such as
cassava (kasav), yam, and maize (mayi). Haitian food, though unique in its own right, shares much in common with that of the rest of
Latin America.
References
1. Slavery and the Haitian Revolution, Chapter 8 Page 2
2. Slavery in the Colonial Era
3. Slavery and the Haitian Revolution, Chapter 8 Page 2
4. Chapter 6 - Haiti: Historical Setting
5. Country profile: Haiti
6. Christophe's Kingdom and Pétion's Republic
7. Haiti: The United States Occupation, 1915-34
8. Haiti: The United States Occupation, 1915-34
9. Haiti: Decades of Instability, 1843-1915
10. http://countrystudies.us/haiti/15.htm
11. François Duvalier 1957-1971
12. Growth and structure of the economy
13. Key Dates in Haiti's History
14. Key Dates in Haiti's History
15. Crisis in Haiti
16. Aristide accuses U.S. of forcing his ouster Steve Miller and Joseph Curl
17.
18. Forestry
19. Photo Gallery: Jeanne hits Haiti
20. http://www.globalexchange.org/countries/americas/haiti/2497.html
21. Analysis: Haiti seeks a biofuel solution
22. German Wikipedia
23. http://www.alterpresse.org/spip.php?article4074
24. Haiti: Religious Life: Voodoo
25. Haiti: Religious Life: Voodoo
★
Edwidge Danticat, ''. Retrieved 2006-12-29.
Further reading
★ [
Randall Robinson], ''An Unbroken Agony- Haiti from Revolution to the Kidnapping of a President'', Basic Books, 2007, ISBN 0-4650-7050-7
★
J. Christopher Kovats-Bernat, ''Sleeping Rough in Port-au-Prince: An Ethnography of Violence and Street Children in Haiti'', University Press of Florida, 2006, ISBN 0-8130-3009-9
★
Paul Farmer, ''The uses of Haiti'', Common Courage Press 2003, ISBN 1-56751-242-9
★
C. L. R. James: The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution (1938, Vintage, ISBN 0-679-72467-2)
★ Martin Ros: ''Night of Fire - The Black Napoleon and the Battle for Haiti'', DaCapo Press, New York 1993, ISBN 0-9627613-8-9
★ Wade Davis: ''The Serpent and The Rainbow''
★ Kurlansky, Mark. 1992. ''A Continent of Islands: Searching for the Caribbean Destiny''. Addison-Wesley Publishing. ISBN 0-201-52396-5.
★ Fick, Carolyn E., ''The Making of Haiti'': The Saint Domingue Revolution from Below, University of Tennessee Press; first ed edition (
February 1,
1990), ISBN-10: 0870496670, ISBN-13: 978-0870496677
★
Jared Diamond. 2005. ''.'' New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-03337-5.
★ Elizabeth McAlister, ''Rara! Vodou, Power, and Performance in Haiti and its Diaspora'', University of California Press, 2002, ISBN 0-520-22823-5.
★ Michael Deibert. Notes from the Last Testament: The Struggle for Haiti. Seven Stories Press, New York, 2005. ISBN-10: 1583226974.
★ Heinl, Nancy Gordon and Robert. Written in Blood: The Story of the Haitian People 1492-1995. University Press of America, 1996. ISBN 0761831770
See also
★
Freeport Tortuga
★
Hispaniola
★
Haiti National Team
★
Politics of Haiti
★
Haiti's external debt
★
List of Haitians
External links
'History'
★
Kreyol - Haitian History
★
Information on Haiti's indigenous heritage and the descendants of the Haitian Arawaks
★
Key Dates in Haitian History - Embassy of Haiti
★
People in Haitian History - Founders and heroes of Haiti
★
Bob Corbett's Haitian History Page - in-depth information about Haitian history and literature
★
Napoleon's secret orders to General Leclerc
★
1937 massacre - information about the 1937 massacre of 18,000 Haitians by Dominican President Rafael Trujillo
★
Library of Congress - A Country Study: Haiti
★
The Louverture Project - Haitian History Wiki
★
Institut de la Maison Imperiale d'Haiti
★
The Imperial and Military Order of Saint Faustin (Ordre Imperial et Militaire de la Croix de Saint-Faustin)
★
1987 Constitution of Haiti - unofficial translation by Georgetown University
★
Embassy of Haiti in Washington D.C.
★
Haiti Paper Money
'Culture'
★
Haiti FM Videos
★
Music and Video of Rara Festivals in Haiti and New York
★
Video: Sculpture marks abolition of slave trade anniversary
'The Flag of Haiti'
The flag of Haiti was redesigned after the slave revolution over a colonial France. The flag was changed from black and yellow to blue and red.
'News'
★
Yahoo! News Full Coverage
★
Encyclpaedia Britannica - Haiti's country page
★
Radio Metropole
★
Television Nationale d'Haiti
★
Agenge Haitienne de Press
★
Telehaiti-Television d'Haiti
★
Radio Kiskeya
★
VOA kreyol
★
Haiti Progre - Lavalas news in several languages
★
AlterPresse news briefs in several languages
★
IFEX independent news
★
Haiti News
★
Haiti-news list, Haitian news
★
Le Nouvelliste Online, political, social, economics, culture and entertainment, sports news
★
IPS Inter Press Service Independent news reports and features about Haiti
'Travel'
★
Haiti Vacation The Haiti Paradise, Cotes des Arcadins & Jacmel e Ile-a-Vache
'Films'
★
BelFim - Haiti's Internet Movie Database
★
Pote Mak Sonje (the Raboteau Trial) (2003)
★
Aristide and the Endless Revolution by Nicolas Rossier (2005)
'Books'
★ Sleeping Rough in Port-au-Prince: An Ethnograohy of Street Children and Violence in Haiti (2006) by J. Christopher Kovats-Bernat
★ Let Haiti Live (2004)
★ Pathologies of Power (2003) by Paul Farmer
'Haitian events'
★
Why they had to Crush Aristide, The Guardian
★
Operation Zero in Haiti, New Left Review
★
Haitian Inspiration, Radical Philosophy
★
Haiti 1804 as an Event - Fidelity to Freedom, Why has it been so difficult to achieve?
'Advocacy'
★
Coalition of Organizations in US for Haiti justice
★
A 'Child Alert' issued by UNICEF for the country of Haiti
★
Articles and News Focusing in on Canada's Role in Haiti
★
Website of Haitian Populat Movement Fanmi Lavalas
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Articles and News Focusing in on Canada's Role in Haiti
★
Invisible Violence: Ignoring Murder in Post-Coup Haiti
★
ZMag analysis on current situation in Haiti
★
''Half-Hour for Haiti'' Action Alerts to promote justice in and for Haiti
★
Haiti Justiceblog
'Health Care'
★
Meds & Food for Kids - Stop malnutrition in Haiti before it takes another life.
★
International Child Care - Christian health development organization in Haiti & Grace Children's Hospital
★
Konbit Sante A New England based Health Partnership with the people of Cap-Haitien
★
Haiti Help Med Plus - Haitian medical aid organization
★
Zanmi Lasante - Public health NGO Partners in Health
★
Hopital Albert Schweitzer Haiti - Integrated Community Health System serving the Artibonite Valley
'NGOs'
★
Hope for Haiti - Educational and grassroots development in rural Haiti.
★
Autorite Aeroportuaire Nationale d'Haiti (AAN)
★
Fondation Sequin- Advocay for the Ecology of Seguin
★
Haiti Innovation - Markets sustainable, development projects in Haiti to an active community of Haiti enthusiasts and aid donors
★
Pwof Ansanm - educational initiative in Haiti
★
Lambi Fund of Haiti - sustainable grassroots development and reforestation for economic justice
★
Akolad.com - home of Haitian community online
★
HaitiXchange.com - Haitian people, news, and culture
★
Haiti Action
★
Haiti Democracy Project
★
Haiti Support Group
★
Hastings Human Rights Project for Haiti - A student led project which lodged a complaint on behalf of former PM Yvon Neptune
★
Institute for Justice and Democracy in Haiti - News and human rights activism for Haiti with weekly newsletter
★
National Coalition for Haitian Rights
★
National Palace
★
Sakapfet Online
★
Second Generation Haitian-American (Interview)
★
UNIF USA - The UNIF USA Foundation
'Community'
★
Pouchons.com Haitian Website Community
★
EchodHaiti.com Haitian Cultural Community
★
HaitianDiaspora.com Haitian-American Diaspora Community
★
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