The 'Hakka' (Mandarin: 'Kèjīa') are a subgroup of the
Han Chinese people who live predominantly in the provinces of
Guangdong,
Jiangxi, and
Fujian in
China. Their ancestors were often said to be from
Northern China or
Central China centuries ago. Hakkas originate from
Southern China. In a series of migrations, the Hakka settled in their present locations in southern China, and then migrated overseas to various nations throughout the world. The Hakka have had a significant influence on the course of Chinese and
overseas Chinese history: in particular, they have been a source of revolutionary and political leaders.
Migrations and group identification
The use of the term ''Hakka'' to describe this people is thought to be comparatively recent, dating to the
Qing Dynasty (c. 17th century).
Their ancestors migrated southwards several times because of social unrest, upheaval, and the invasion of foreign conquerors, since the
Jin Dynasty (265-420). Subsequent migrations occurred at the end of the
Tang Dynasty when China fragmented, during the middle of the
Song Dynasty which saw massive depopulation of the north and a flood of refugees southward, when the
Jurchens captured the northern Song capital, at the fall of the Song to the
Mongols in the
Yuan Dynasty, and when the Ming Dynasty fell to the Manchu who formed the
Qing Dynasty.
During the reign of Emperor Qing
Kangxi , the coastal regions were evacuated by imperial edict for almost a decade, due to the danger posed by the remnants of the Ming court who had fled to what is now Taiwan. When the threat was eliminated, the Kangxi Emperor issued an edict to re-populate the coastal regions. To aid the move, each family was given money to begin their new lives; newcomers were registered as "Guest Families" (客戶, kèhù).
The existing
Cantonese speaking inhabitants ''(Punti)'' of these areas were protective of their own more fertile lands, and the newcomers were pushed to the outer fringes of fertile plains, or they settled in more mountainous regions to eke out a living. Conflict between the two groups grew, and it is thought that "Hakka" was a term of derision used by the ''
Punti'' aimed at the newcomers. Eventually, the tension between the two groups would lead to a series of 19th century wars known as the
Punti-Hakka Clan Wars.
Over time, the term "Hakka" was adopted by the newcomers to refer to themselves, not least due to the migratory tendencies inherent in their own culture. However, because the term also covers Hakka language-speakers, and because the Han Chinese registered as Guest Families who migrated at the time may not have been Hakka language-speakers, and because of intermarriages among Hakka and Punti members, identification as Hakka was largely a matter of self-selection. Through studies of both
Cantonese and Hakka genealogies, some Hakka and Punti people with the same surnames claim the same ancestors, although their descendants strongly identify with one group to the exclusion of the other (a feature of inter-clan rivalry).
The Hakka ancestors are thus but one group amongst many who migrated southwards, becoming linguistically marked by differences yet unified through cultural assonances. Hakka people now are found in the southern Chinese provinces, chiefly in
Guangdong, south-western
Fujian, southern
Jiangxi, southern
Hunan,
Guangxi, southern
Guizhou, south-eastern
Sichuan, and on
Hainan and
Taiwan islands. The
Hakka dialects across these various provinces differ
phonologically, but the Meixian (Meizhou) dialect of Hakka is considered the archetypal spoken form of the language. Migratory patterns have been established for some groups e.g. in Taiwan, northern and southern migrations from corresponding provinces in China.
Although distinctive in social custom and culture (e.g.
linguistic differences) from the surrounding population, the Hakka are not considered a
separate ethnic group by the Chinese people: they belong to the
Han Chinese majority. Indigenous settlers thought that the Hakka were not Chinese at all; but due to common ancestry, are traced in clan genealogies, Hakka descendants have been shown to be as Han Chinese as their neighbouring clans. In fact, the Hakka are no more non-Han than are any other southern Han populations. Again, inter-clan disputes may have contributed to views, attempting to exclude or marginalise the Hakka people who essentially demonstrate a peripatetic pattern through centuries.
Historical sources shown in census statistics relate only to the general population, irrespective of particular districts, provinces, or regions. These census counts were made during imperial times. They did not distinguish what language the population spoke. Therefore they do not directly document Hakka migrations. The study by
Luo Xianglin, ''K'o-chia Yen-chiu Tao-Liu / An Introduction to the Study of the Hakkas'' (Hsin-Ning & Singapore,
1933) used genealogical sources of family clans from various southern counties.
A Hakka house in southern Fujian.
With population movement, it is reasonable to assume that there is mixing among both the Han newcomers and the indigenous peoples, and between the ''Punti'' and ''Hakka''. A recent study showed that there is genetic diversity in the general
Han Chinese population. This suggests that the southward migration of people is borne out by these DNA studies, consistent with genealogical data. Further, two main groups of modern Han Chinese are observed: a northerly Han group with genetic affinity with northerly Mongoloid peoples, and a southerly Han group which have genetic affinity with the
Gin Vietnamese. This finding is consistent with the migrations experienced during the history of the Hakka, from the north to the south of China. Even though this study is not a direct study of Hakka ancestry using DNA data, it does show that all modern southern Chinese have non-Han genotypes, due to a history of intermarriage with indigenous aboriginal peoples in the places in which they came to settle.
Social and cultural influences
With limited prospects in agriculture, Hakka men have turned -- more often than have other Chinese -- toward careers in the military or public service. Consequently, the Hakka culturally emphasized education and have performed well in Imperial examinations.
Hakka society does not show a patriarchal hierarchy; the fundamental unit of the family recruited all members in line with a Confucian ethic. The working ability of women, often in the undertaking of agrarian chores, complemented the studies or military activities of their men in periods of disruption.
The Hakkas did not practice
foot-binding, which phenomenon may be attributed to the fact that women were required to work. This characteristic of the Hakka people has been noted prior to late migrations in the 19th century.
Due to their agrarian lifestyle, the Hakka have a unique architecture based on defense and communal living (''See''
Hakka architecture), and a hearty savory cuisine based on an equal balance between texturised meat and vegetables, and fresh vegetables (''See''
Hakka cuisine).
During the
Qing Dynasty, some Hakkas used their feet to pull out weeds in
rice paddies because they did not want to kneel and crawl on the land of
Manchus.
Hakkas in China
Hakkas in Guangdong
The Hakkas who live in Guangdong comprise about 60% of the total Hakka population. Worldwide, over 95% of the overseas-descended Hakkas came from this Guangdong region, usually from
Huizhou: the Hakkas there live mostly in the eastern part of the province, particularly in the so-called Xing-Mei (
Xingning-
Meixian) area. Guangxi contains the second-largest Hakka community. Unlike their kin in Fujian, the Hakkas in the Xingning and Meixian area developed a non-fortress-like unique architectural style, most notably the
weilongwu (Chinese: 圍龍屋, wéilóngwū or Hakka: Wui Lung Wuk) and
sijiaolou (Chinese: 四角樓, sìjǐaolóu or Hakka: Si Kok Liu).
Hakkas in Fujian
The Hakkas who settled in the mountainous region of south-western Fujian province developed a unique form of architectural building known as ''tu lou'' (土樓), literally meaning ''earthen structures''. The ''tu lou'' are round or square and were designed as a combined large fortress and multi-apartment building complex. The structures typically had only one entrance-way, with no windows at ground level. Each floor served a different function: the first floor containing a well and livestock, the second food storage and the third and higher floors contain living spaces. Tu-lou were built to withstand attack from bandits and marauders.
(see
Hakka architecture)
Hakkas and martial arts
Hakkas also developed a system of martial arts called Hakka Kuen (Hakka Fist), and which lead to the development of Southern Praying Mantis.
(see
Hakka Kuen)
Hakkas in Taiwan
In Taiwan, Hakka people comprise about 15% of the population and are descended largely from Guangdong: they form the third largest population group on the island. Many Hakka moved to lands high up in the hills or remote mountains to escape political persecution. Many of the Hakka people continue to live in these hilly locations of Taiwan.
Taiwan's Hakka are concentrated in
Hsinchu City and
Hsinchu County,
Miaoli County, and around
Chungli in
Taoyuan County, and Meinong in
Kaohsiung County, and in
Pingtong County, with smaller presences in
Hualian and
Taitung County. In recent decades many Hakka have moved to the largest metropolitan areas, including
Taipei and
Kaohsiung.
Hakkas in Hong Kong
Hakka people in Hong Kong form the largest ethnic minority endemic to Hong Kong.
Historical background
In contemporary society, the Hakka people in Hong Kong have been identified primarily through their concentration and population in the villages and small towns in the
New Territories. During the Qing Dynasty, the Hakka people were displaced and persecuted due to marked cultural differences from classical and modern Han Chinese customs. Refusing to practice the binding of feet, the Hakka people were marked out as 'Hak' or 'guest' people in Hong Kong [Cantonese dialect transliteration]. Strikingly, the linguistic properties of the Hakka language indicate a language structure which antedates the evolution of the Cantonese and Mandarin dialects: from a linguistic perspective, it remains implausible to suggest that the Hakka language originated from the Northern provinces.
[1]. The last great migration of the Hakka people towards Hong Kong took place at the time of the 'Tai Ping' revolution (1850-1864). Hakka dissenters featured in the anti-government rebellion and subsequently were persecuted following the failure of the Tai Ping revolution. One notable feature of the Hakka culture was their marked embrace of the Christian faith which at the time of anti-Western sentiment in the Qing dynasty added more cultural impetus for their persecution.
Traditional Hakka religious affiliation requires further exploration, however there is no evidence to suggest that the Hakka people deviated from mainstream Confucian practices with a hierarchised dependence on authority given through the family head. Christianised by Protestant missionaries in the mid-19th century who offered nutrition and basic needs for the Hakka people, the Hakka were often mistakenly categorised with the cult practices of Hong Xiuquan's Taiping Tianguo movement. Hakkas are considered in mainstream Chinese society as a taboo caste or "the Jews of China" due to their forced migratory patterns and systematic victimization by other Chinese ethnic groups . The interclan wars contributed to the extensive decline of the Hakka population, not only in the southern Chinese provinces, but also in Hong Kong. Thus the new settlers who were forced to concentrate on the northern New Territories of Hong Kong and marginalised. The Punti, having occupied land of more strategic and economic importance, experienced an identity crisis with the influx of the new immigrants whose economic ascent, threatened their own. Punti violence and contributed much to the persecution of the Hakka people in Hong Kong although some sources suggest that the Hakka people were able to defend their own, the general consensus remains that the Hakka people endured adverse hardship from immigration into the Punti territory. Responding through Confucian defences, the Hakka people placed a greater reliance on the internal strengths of their own customs and cultural identity. This model of community survival, dependent on the integrity of the nuclear clan unit in the face of adversity has contributed to the 20th century outcome of preserving the cultural identity of the Hakka people.
Occupationally, Hakka immigrants were agriculture based, and worked with high and difficult terrain. The Hakka 'mountain song' as well as songs of 'eight tones' have become famed, particularly outside of Hong Kong by several Hakka artists although these efforts are fractional in representation. The traditional Hakka mountain song expressed human struggle and toil in the early and harsh settlement of a land which was untreaded by man, requiring clearing and human effort. Hakka folk-art remains a strong reminder of the folk origin and connection and the naturalistic tendencies of the Hakka populus, working within a self-dependent synergistic agrarian bioecosystem. Geographically segregated from Qing Dynasty control and persecution following China's military failures of the 19th century, the politics of the Hakka people placed great reliance on a traditional feudal society and the persistence of the clan. The striving ethos in the Hakka people of Hong Kong also emphasized ancestral and cultural customs with strong Confucian leanings: these too were not ablated in line with the revolutions in China which were to follow in the early 20th Century. In China, the feudal clan culture of Chinese society was to be obliterated through dramatic revolutions. In Hong Kong, Hakka villages continue to be aggregated loosely around clanship, maintaining blood-ties to families (often identified through genealogy). They maintain separate legal rules based on a feudal system which still exists and contrasts to the rules of mainstream Hong Kong society (with respect to inheritance rights and appropriation of land).
Cuisine
The Hakka people have a marked cuisine and style of Chinese cooking which is little known outside the Hakka home. There is a mistaken view that Hakka cuisine is pragmatic and based on preserved foods due to the harsh environment that the Hakka people endured. Whereas this may hold true for preserved meats, it is not accurate to typecast Hakka food as preserved to survive hardships. Hakka cuisine concentrates on the texture of food - the hallmark of Hakka cuisine. Whereas preserved meats feature in Hakka delicacy, stewed, braised, roast meats, 'texturized' contributions to the Hakka palate have a central place in their repertoire.
The Hakkas who settled in the harbour and port areas of Hong Kong placed great emphasis on seafood cuisine. Hakka cuisine in Hong Kong is less dominated by expensive meats, instead emphasis is placed on an abundance of vegetables. Pragmatic and simple, Hakka cuisine is garnished lightly with sparse or little flavouring. The Hakka style of food also reflects the simpler cuisine style of a people in the more rugged landscapes of the New Territories of Hong Kong and their origins from mountainous Northern regions of mainland China. Modern Hakka cooking in Hong Kong favours
offal, an example being Deep-Fried Intestines (炸大腸 or Tza Tai Chong). Others include tofu with preservatives, along with their signature dish Salt Baked Chicken (鹽焗雞 or Yam Guk Gai). Another specialty is the Poon Choy (盆菜)
[1]. While it may be difficult to prove these were the actual diets of the old Hakka community, it is presently a commonly accepted view.
Hakka restaurants that exist around the world are more a reflection of the transmigration tendencies of the Hakka people, rather than a testament to the popularity of Hakka cuisine among non-Hakka Chinese and non-Chinese people, unlike the popularity of Cantonese Chinese food in Hong Kong.
Modern society
By the early 21st century, the face of the Hakka people had changed dramatically. Taking several centuries to traverse the Henan and Shaanxi provinces of their origin, technology and transportation enabled the mass immigration of the Hakka people in the latter half of the 19th century. Further Hakka transmigrations have taken place in Taiwan, Malaysia and Asian countries; these latter transmigrations have been possible through advances in transport. Unsurprisingly, Hakka people in Hong Kong demonstrate a highly mobile tendency across the world. The traditional Oriental notion of a 'sea turtle' has been used to describe these Hakka immigrants, who, in parallel to the metaphor, return to Hong Kong like the sea turtle to its home of origin. Far from oblique, this tendency reflects the strong Confucian ties with the fundamental unit of Hakka culture: the family. Hakka culture remains strongly inter-personal with a strong emphasis on family coherence and communion through meal times. In contrast the Hong Kong Cantonese 'Punti' family unit has undergone transformation into smaller nuclear units due to the pressures exerted by Westernization and industrialization; the Hakka family unit remains essentially and traditionally Chinese, tightly extended as a unit within the infrastructure of the historical feudal clan.
Traditional agriculture, the historical occupation of the Hakka people was usurped as the Hakka people diversified in occupational set towards social classes I & II and assimilating occupational expectations of their progenitors and their host countries. In Hong Kong, the imposition of a mandatory and formal education system entailed that Hakka people placed a greater emphasis on the language of Hong Kong at the time (Cantonese). Prior to this educational reform, learning took place within the family and the Hakka clan-unit which mutually reinforced the value of the Hakka language. However as a formal requisite for learning, in addition to English, the Hakka cultural expectations of children to succeed, also contributed to the 21st century erosion of Hakka culture. Without formal Hakka instruction, Hakka children of the 20th century were subject to the same laws as the 'Punti' on the educational front. Despite their survival in the face of Punti adversity, by the latter half of the 20th century, even the Hakka people were becoming more 'Punti' such that it was no exception that the next generation had no oral grasp of the Hakka language.
By 1997 with the formal handover of Hong Kong back to China, Cantonese and English continue to be the mainstream languages of Hong Kong, with Mandarin becoming increasingly important. The only place where the Hakka language can be maintained and transmitted to the next generation remains in the home. However younger Hakka speakers face alienation from their own mother tongue in Cantonese speaking Hong Kong and has also led to an assimilation of the cultural mainstream of their host territory, such that traditional Hakka society in the historical clan-villages of Hong Kong, can seem remote and detached from the modern Hakka person.
It should be noted that the Hakka's modern societal structure and experience comprehends far more diverse and complex global elements than the Hong Kong landscape, where only a small fraction of the Hakka reside or have transitioned through.
Preservation
Culturally, Hakka people have relied on an oral tradition for intergenerational communication of culture. The formal written language, unified through traditional Chinese writing across China and beyond, has left the Hakka people of Hong Kong in a closed cultural system [Mandarin and Cantonese] with little impetus for perpetuating its own culture. This phenomenon is also mirrored on a wider scale on the mainland with the minor dialects of Chinese facing extinction as Mandarin Chinese gains ascendency. A deterioration of the Confucian determination of authority can also be discerned in this trend i.e. the reliance on local ancestral and clan wisdom weakened as a greater reliance on education and external authorities has accelerated. In the latter half of the 21st century, a stronger emphasis has been placed on Hakka preservation through folk art and customs. A Hakka language dictionary has also been completed auspiciously on 1997 by Dr CF Lau [ISBN Reference: ISBN 962-201-750-9], a devoted contributor to the preservation of the Hakka language in Hong Kong. Historically, early transmigration enabled the survival and persistence of Hakka culture as the Hakka people settled in less than welcoming circumstances. On the other hand, modern transmigration is contributing to the increasing loss of Hakka language between Hakka generations; the western education received by 'sea turtles' has been compounded by formal language acquisition challenges as Hakka language becomes relegated to a second or third language. Natively, this erosion takes place through the formal Chinese educational system.
Epidemiologically, there is a tendency of the Hakka second generation immigrants to acculturate to host country's mores. The vestiges of Hakka feudal laws which govern Hakka society in Hong Kong are still testimony of on-going support for the perpetuation of Hakka culture in Hong Kong society yet currently fall under threat of modern reform. Thus, Hakka culture, being displaced from its agrarian roots in Hong Kong, lacks a school of education; possesses no significant repository of formal Hakka cuisine and most strikingly, lacks a linguistic culture enforced through the education system. In the 21st century, Hakka culture remains marginalised in Hong Kong, with its accessibility being confined to its crib-villages and its folk art.
Hakkas worldwide
The Hakkas have emigrated to many regions worldwide, notably
India,
Malaysia,
Singapore,
Indonesia,
Myanmar and
Thailand.
Hakka people also emigrated to
Australia,
Brunei,
Canada, the
United States, and to many countries in
Europe, including
Great Britain,
France,
Spain,
Germany,
Austria,
Belgium, and the
Netherlands. Hakka people also are found in
South Africa and
Mauritius, on the islands of the
Caribbean (
Jamaica and
Trinidad and Tobago, and in
Central and South America, particularly in
Panama. Most expatriate Hakka in Great Britain have ties to Hong Kong; many emigrated when Hong Kong still was a British colony during a period coinciding with the Cultural Revolution of China and economic depression in Hong Kong. There once was a sizable Hakka community in
Calcutta, but most there have migrated to
Canada, the
United States,
Australia,
Taiwan or
Austria. Today there are about 90-100 million Hakka speakers around the world. In Malaysia, Hakka people are sometimes known as ''Khek''.
Hakkas in Indonesia
Hakka people in Indonesia are found primarily in cities in Western Kalimantan (Borneo), such as
Pontianak,
Singkawang, and towns along the
Kapuas River. They are descendants of gold prospectors who migrated from China in the late 19th century.
Hakkas also live in the Indonesia's biggest
tin producer islands of
Bangka Belitung province. They were the second majority ethnic group after
Malay at about 300,000. Hakka population in the province is also the second largest in Indonesia after
West Kalimantan's and one of the highest percentages of Chinese living in Indonesia as well. The first ancestries of Hakkas in Bangka and Belitung have reached the islands in 18th century from
Meixian of
Guangdong, many of them worked as tin mining labours. Since that they have stayed the island along with the native Malay people. The condition is much different with Chinese and natives in other region as they always came into clashes before year of 1999 when
Indonesian Chinese finally got their freedom again since 1960's. But here they lived together peacefully and still practiced their customs and cultural festival such as in celebrating Chinese New Year and Qingming while in other region were heavily banned by government before 1999. The majority religions of Chinese Babel are
Confucianism or
Buddhism, and significant number of
Christian. A little number of them
confessed Islam as some of them married Malays. Hakkas on the island of Bangka have an unusual accent, said to be heavily influenced by the Malay, especially in younger generation. The younger generations spoke much Malay than older people. Chinese languages employ tones to distinguish different words; differences in tone can change a word's meaning entirely. The Hakka spoken by the islanders has such a different tonal system that their spoken language is hardly intelligible to Hakkas from other regions. But they still said themself as ''Thong ngin'' as well as younger people and spoke ''Thong boi''. ''Hakka ngin'' words are unpopular as well as ''Hakkafa''. The Hakka spoken in the
Belinyu area in Bangka is considered to be standard. Many Hakkas in the province have moved outside the Islands especially to
Jakarta. There were more than 30,000 - 50,000 ''Chinese Babel'' in Jakarta. They still spoke their language both Malay and ''Thong boi''. There were also a big Chinese population from Bangka and Belitung who lived abroad such as in
China and
Hongkong. They proud to be ''Chinese Bangka Belitung'', so once or twice a year they always returned home to celebrate Chinese new year or pay their respects in
Qingming.
Hakkas in East Timor
Ethnic Hakka people in a wedding in East Timor, 2006
There was a relatively large and vibrant Hakka community in
East Timor before the Indonesian invasion in
1975. According to the local Chinese Timorese association's estimation, the Hakka population in 1975 was estimated about 25,000 Hakkas (including a small minority of other Chinese ethnicity from Macau). During the invasion many Hakka were slaughtered. According to a book source, it was estimated about 700 Hakkas were killed on the first week of invasion in Dili alone. No clear numbers had been recorded since many Hakkas evacuated and escaped to
Australia. Recent re-establishment of Hakka association registered approximately about 2,400 Hakkas remained (400 families, including half Timorese families) in East Timor.
Now the Hakka diaspora can be found in
Darwin and spread-out in major cities such as
Brisbane,
Sydney and
Melbourne of Australia, Portugal, Macau and small numbers in other parts of the world. They often are highly-educated, and many continue their educations in Taiwan or China, with majority of younger generation study in Australia. The Australian government took some years to assess their claims to political asylum in order to establish their credentials as genuine refugees and not illegal immigrants, partially related to political situation of East Timor during that time. As no Asian country was willing to accept them as residents, or grant political asylum to displaced Hakka and other Timorese, they were forced to live as stateless persons for a time. Despite this condition, many Hakkas had became successful and established food chains, shops, supermarkets and importers in Australia. Since the independence of East Timor in 2002, some Hakka families had returned and invest in businesses in the newborn nation.
Hakkas in Malaysia
Hakkas form the 2nd largest subgroup of the ethnic Chinese population of
Malaysia. A well known Hakka man is
Yap Ah Loy, whom was a
Kapitan in
Kuala Lumpur from
1868 to
1885, where he brought significant economic contributions and also was an influential figure among the ethnic Chinese.
In East Malaysia, although they formed a significant part of the
Bornean state of
Sabah where most of the ethnic Chinese are of Hakka descent, however the younger generation of Hakka descent are likely to use Mandarin as the primary language between themselves, which could be that the Hakka language will be forgotten by some of them. In the city of
Sandakan, the majority of the Hakka are Cantonese speaking.
This is indicative of the tendency of Chinese subgroups to immigrate into concentrations of culturally identical populations, resulting in different regions of Malaysia have different dominant Chinese dialects.
Hakkas in Mauritius
The vast majority of Mauritian Chinese are Hakkas. Most of the Mauritian Hakkas emigrated to Mauritius in the mid 1940's came from the Guangdong province, especially from the Meizhou or Meixian region. Some of them have emigrated from Calcutta.
Today the language of most Mauritian Hakkas speak are Creole, French, English and Hakka, depending on how much their parents have tried to keep the Hakka language alive.
Many Mauritian Hakkas have also emigrated to Canada.
Prominent Hakkas
The Hakka have had a significant influence, disproportionate to their small total numbers, on the course of Chinese and Overseas Chinese history, particularly as a source of revolutionary and political leaders.
Hakka were active in the
Taiping Rebellion [Jonathan D. Spence, "God's Chinese Son", 1997 - see references], led by the notorious and failed Qing scholar
Hong Xiuquan, who claimed he was the younger brother of
Jesus. Hong Xiuquan consistently failed entry into public office through his examinations. Influenced by Protestant missionaries, Hong Xiuquan's charisma tapped into a consciousness of national dissent which identified with his personal interpretations of the Christian message. His following grew across the southern provinces and despite disavowal by missionaries, his movement, supported by various generals, formed the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (Taiping Tian Guo), which at one stage in the latter 19th century almost toppled the Qing Dynasty. It contributed to the Qing Dynasty's military failures in defending China against external invaders as the Qing Dynasty became preoccupied with internal issues.
This continues to be true in modern Chinese history, in which some of the most prominent Chinese leaders have been Hakkas. In the 1980s-90s, three political leaders were Hakkas: the
People's Republic of China's
Deng Xiaoping, the
Republic of China's
Lee Teng-hui and
Singapore's
Lee Kuan Yew. Deng & Lee Kuan Yew were among four Chinese named as "the 20th Century's 20 Most Influential Asians" by
Time magazine.
Revolutionaries and politicians
★
Heavenly Kingdom of Taiping
★
★
Hong Xiuquan (''1812-1864; Hua County, Guangdong''), Heavenly King
★
★
Feng Yunshan, South King
★
★
Yang Xiuqing, East King
★
★
Shi Dakai (''Guiping, Guangxi''), Wing King
★
★
Li Xiucheng (''Teng County, Guangxi''), Loyal King
★
★
Chen Yucheng, Ying King
★
★
Hong Rengan, Premier and Shield King
★ Republic of China (China)
★
★
Sun Yatsen, Father of Modern China (possible)
★
★
Chen Jiongming, (''1878-1933;
Haifeng, Guandong'')
★
★ Soong Family
★
★
★
Charlie Soong (''1863-1918; Wenchang, Hainan'')
★
★
★
Soong Sisters
★
★
★
★
Soong Ai-ling (''1890-1973; Wenchang, Hainan; born in Shanghai''), wife of
H. H. Kung
★
★
★
★
Soong Ching-ling (''1893-1981; Wenchang, Hainan; born in Kunshan, Jiangsu''), wife of
Sun Yat-sen
★
★
★
★
Soong May-ling (''1898-2003; Wenchang, Hainan''), wife of
Chiang Kai-shek
★
★
★
T. V. Soong (''1894-1971; Shanghai''), former
premier of the Republic of China
★
★ Chin Pau Yin (''1909-1945; Bao'an, Guangdong''), high-ranking official in the Bao'an region in the early 20th century
★ People's Republic of China
★
★
Zhang Guotao (''1897-1979; Pingxiang, Jiangxi''), founding member and leader of
Communist Party of China
★
★
Li Peng (''Chengdu, Sichuan''), former Premier and former Chairman, National People's Congress; was second in ranking in Communist Party of China behind Jiang Zemin
★
★
Ye Jianying (''1897-1986; Meixian, Guangdong''), famous
People's Republic of China leader and general
★
★
Deng Xiaoping, (''1904–1997; Guang'an, Sichuan''), Influential Leader of the
Communist Party of China
★
★
Zeng Qinghong (''1939-, Ji'an, Jiangxi''), present Vice-President,
People's Republic of China
★
★ Ye Xuanping (''Meixian, Guangdong''), former governor, Guangdong Province, China
★
★ Xie Fei, former governor, Guangdong Province, China
★
★ Huang Huahua, present governor, Guangdong Province, China
★ Republic of China (Taiwan)
★
★
Lee Teng-hui (''1923-''), Former
KMT President of Taiwan
★
★
Chen Shui-bian, President of Taiwan
★
★
Wu Po-hsiung, Chairman, Kuomintang
★
★
Yeh Chu-lan (''1949-; born in Taiwan''), was acting mayor of
Kaoshiong,
Republic of China
★
★
Hsu Hsin-liang (''1941-''), a leading opposition politician in Taiwan and a co-founder and former chairman of the
Democratic Progressive Party
★ Overseas
★
★
Low Lan Pak (''1738-1778, Meixian, Guangdong)'', founded the Hakka republic of Lanfang (present Western Kalimantan, now part of Indonesia), 1777-1884
★
★
Yap Ah Loy (''1837-1885, Huiyang, Guangdong)'', founder of Kuala Lumpur (present capital of Malaysia)
★
★
Arthur Raymond Chung (''1916-''), first President of the Republic of Guyana, 1970-80
★
★
Lee Kuan Yew (''1923-; Dapu, Guangdong; born in Singapore)'', founding father of modern
Singapore
★
★
Lee Hsien Loong (''1952-, Dapu, Guangdong; born in Singapore)'', present
Prime Minister of Singapore
★
★
Thaksin Shinawatra(丘達新), (''1949-; Fengshun, Guangdong; born in Thailand)'', former
Prime Minister of Thailand
★
★
Adrienne Clarkson, (''1939-, Taishan, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong)'', former
Governor General of Canada
★
★ Sir
Solomon Hochoy, former Governor and Governor General of
Trinidad and Tobago
★
★
Jek Yeun Thong, former Cabinet Minister, Singapore
★
★
Yong Nyuk Lin, former Cabinet Minister, Singapore
★
★
Howe Yoon Chong (Born in China), former Cabinet Minister, Singapore
★
★
Hu Tsu Tau Richard (''1926-, Yongding, Fujian; born in Singapore)'', former Finance Minister of Singapore
★
★
Ne Win (''1910-2002; born in Burma''), former head of state of Burma (now Myanmar)
★
★
Abhisit Vejjajiva, Leader, Thailand Democrat Party, Thailand's oldest political party
Government officials
★
Supachai Panitchpakdi, (''1946-; born in Thailand''), first and only Director-General of
World Trade Organization of Asian origin
★ Yong Pung How (''Dapu, Guangdong; born in Malaysia''), former Chief Justice,
Singapore
★ Yeung Kam John Bernard, Yeung Sik Yuen (''Meixian, Guangdong; born in Mauritius''), Chief Justice,
Mauritius
★ Pedro Lay, ''(born in
East-Timor),'' current Minister of Infrastructure,
Republic Democratic of Timor-Leste,2007 - 2012.
★ Gil Alves, ''(born in
East-Timor),'' current Minister of Tourism, Commerce & Industry,
Republic Democratic of Timor-Leste,2007 - 2012.
★ Kong Mu, ''(born in
East-Timor),'' finance advisor for Ministry of Agriculture & Fisheries,
Republic Democratic of Timor-Leste.2004 ~ ...
Literary figures
★
Guo Moruo (''1892-1978''), famous Chinese literary figure
★
Han Suyin (''1917-; Xinyang, Henan''), famous author of books on modern China
★
Luo Xianglin (''Xingning, Guangdong''), the most renowned scholar on Hakka culture and language
Artists
★
Lin Fengmian (1900 - 1991; Meizhou, Guangdong''), aka Lim Foong Min in Hakka - first to harmoniously combine Western and Chinese painting techniques.
★ Hong Huang Yin: contemporary mainland classical Chinese singer releases 'Hakka Lady' - a collection of Hakka mountain songs on KIIGO Records [S/N: KG 1030-2]
★ Chu Lung-hsien: contemporary Taiwanese Hakka folk music. Lead vocalist for "The Stiff Necked Hakka Band"
★ Lai Bi-Sia: popular contemporary Taiwanese Hakka folk singer who has contributed over the past 50 years to the revival of the Hakka mountain song. Lai Bi-Sia has a music repertoire over seventy albums of which her music and lyrics are pieced individually by Bi-Sia.
★ Hsu Mu-Jheng': Traditional self-taught Hakka mountain song artist
Entrepreneurs
★ Yong Koon, founder of Royal Selangor, Malaysia, the largest pewter manufacturer in the world
★
Aw Boon Haw and Aw Boon Par (''Yongding, Fujian; born in Burma''), philanthropists of
Tiger Balm fame
★
Cheong Fatt Tze (''1840-1916; Dapu, Guangdong''), well-respected business tycoon in South-east Asia who contributed greatly to the interests of Overseas Chinese during China's Qing and Republican era
★
Tan Sri Jeffrey Cheah (''born in Malaysia''), founder and chairman of The Sunway Group of Companies,
Malaysia
★
Alan Yau, founder of the
Wagamama restaurant chain,
Hakkasan, and
Yauatcha.
★
Jimmy Choo, renowned designer of shoes and handbags.
★
Michael Lee-Chin, Jamaican-born Chairman and CEO of AIC Limited - one of Canada's largest mutual fund companies.
★
Edmund NS Tie (''born in Singapore''), Executive Chairman of DTZ(DebenhemTieLueng) Group of Companies,
Singapore
★
Jannie Tay, (''born in Malaysia''), Chairperson, Hour Glass, Singapore
★
Michael Fam, (''born in Malaysia''), top corporate figure in Singapore
★
Prajogo Pangestu,or
Phang Jun Phen, ('' born in Indonesia''), one of the tycoons in Indonesia.
★ Jape Kong Su ''(born in Meixian, Guandong)'' Founder and Chairman of Jape Group business of furniture and retail enterprise Australia, East Timor (Timor-Leste) & China
★ Dave Chong , (''born in Malaysia'') , Founder and Former Managing Director of NEC Infrontia Asia-Pacific
★ Sebastian Chin (''Bao'an, Guangdong; born in Malaysia''), founder and current Chairman of Reprographic Business Machines (
Sabah) Sdn. Bhd.
Entertainers
★ Hong Kong
★
★
Leslie Cheung (1956-2003; ''Meixian, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong''), late Hong Kong singer/actor
★
★
Chow Yun-Fat (''1955-; Bao'an, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong''), Hong Kong and Hollywood actor
★
★
Leon Lai (''1966-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Beijing''), one of the "Four Great Heavenly Kings" of Chinese pop music
★
★
Alex Man (''Bao'an, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong''), Hong Kong actor
★
★
Cherie Chung, Hong Kong actress
★
★
Jordan Chan (''Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong''), Hong Kong actor
★
★
Eric Tsang (''Wuhua, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong''), Hong Kong actor-comedian
★
★
Francis Yip (''Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong''), Hong Kong singer
★
★
Deanie Yip (''Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong''), Hong Kong singer/actress
★ Taiwan
★
★
Hou Hsiao-Hsien (''1947-; Meixian, Guangdong''), award-winning Taiwanese film director
★
★
Lin Feng Qiao, famous Taiwanese actress in 70s-80s, wife of Jackie Chan
★
★
Luo Dayou, godfather of Taiwan pop music
★
★
S.H.E, Taiwanese female pop group
★
★
★ Hebe Tien
★
★
★ Ella Chen
★
★
Shino Lin, Taiwanese singer
★ People's Republic of China
★
★
Huang Wanqiu (''Meixian, Guangdong''), China actress of the classic movie "
Liu San Jie" (
Third Sister Liu)
★ Singapore
★
★
Fann Wong, famous Singaporean actress-singer-model
★
★
Dick Lee, Singaporean musician
★
★
Adrian Pang, Singaporean actor
★
★
Michelle Chong, Singaporean actress
★
★
Ho Yeow Sun, Singaporean singer; First and only Asian singer to top the US Billboard Dance Chart and the UK MusicWeek Chart; Only singer selected to be music ambassador for 2008 Beijing Olympics
★
★
Yew Hong Chow, 游宏钊 Singaporean Classical Musician and Harmonica Virtuso, featured in 'Singapore Gaga', a Singapore made documentary by Tan Pin Pin
★ Malaysia
★
★
Eric Moo, famous Malaysian pop singer
★
★
Guang Liang and
Wang Pingguan (''Hepo, Guangdong''), famous Malaysian pop singers
★
★
Penny Tai (''Haifeng/Lufeng, Guangdong; born in Malaysia''), Malaysian pop singer
★
★
Zhang Zhicheng, famous Malaysian singer
★ Indonesia
★
★
Delon Thamrin, runner up Indonesian Idol season 1 of 2004.
★ United States
★
★ Rainman, American rapper of the group
Himalayan Project
★
East Timor
★
★
Futu,a young and wicked underground
Hip-Hop Rapper in England, United Kingdom.
★
★
DJ Locos, a famous
Disc Jockey of
Hip-Hop and
House Music in Darwin and Dili, member of Los Raiders Production.
Sportspersons
★ Lin Dan, World badminton champion
★ Kenneth Pang, Australian basketballer and snowboarder
See also
★
Hakka architecture
★
Hakka language
★
Hakka cuisine
★
Hakka Hill Songs
★
Meizhou
★
Punti
★
Punti-Hakka Clan Wars
★
Hakka Kuen
References
★ ''The Hakka Dialect. A Linguistic Study of its Phonology, Syntax and Lexicon'', by Mantaro J. Hashimoto. (Cambridge University Press, 1973).
★ ''The secret history of the Hakkas: the Chinese revolution as a Hakka enterprise'' by Mary S. Erbaugh, The China Quaterly, No. 132, December 1992, pp. 937-968.
★ ''God's Heavenly Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan'', by Jonathan D. Spence. (pub. W.W. Norton, reprint) 1997. (ISBN-13 978-0393315561)
External links
★
Sarawak Hakka Community Association
★
The Hakka Forum
★
Hakka Culture Information
★
Hakka Information
★
http://www.worldhakka.org
★
The Institute of Hakka Research at Jiaying University
★
Guest People: Hakka Identity in China and Abroad (Book)
★
Video with basic hakka sentences as used by the East Timorese Chinese
★
Hakka Population and Distribution
★
[2]
★
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