HAPPINESS

'Happiness' is an emotional or affective state that is characterized by feelings of enjoyment, pleasure, and satisfaction. As a state and a subject, it has been pursued and commented on extensively throughout world history. This reflects the universal importance that humans place on happiness.
States associated with happiness include well-being, delight, inner peace, health, safety, contentment, and love. Contrasting states include suffering, depression, grief, anxiety, and pain.

Contents

Societal theories of happiness

Psychological views

Early theories

Positive psychology

Mechanistic view

Biological basis

In humans

Mystical (religious, spiritual, and mythological) view

Worldwide happiness

Happiness and economics

Measuring Happiness

Religious involvement and happiness

See also

References

Notes

External links

Societal theories of happiness

Western society takes its concept of happiness, at least in part, from the Greek concept of Eudaimonia, which was introduced by Aristotle, treating the pursuit of Eudaimonia, as a single dominant aim. ^[1] ''Eudaimonia'' (Greek: εὐδαιμονία) is a classical Greek word commonly translated as 'happiness'. Etymologically, it consists of the word "eu" ("good" or "well being") and "daimōn" ("spirit" or "minor deity", used by extension to mean one's lot or fortune).

Psychological views

Early theories

Gautama Buddha discussed the role of the mind in the pursuit of happiness through the practice of the eightfold path. According to Buddha,"Mind is the forerunner of states of existence. Mind is chief, and (those states) are caused by the mind. If one speaks and acts with a pure mind, surely happiness will follow like one's own shadow!" In Buddhism, the third of the Four Noble Truths states "to eliminate suffering, eliminate craving", thus establishing happiness as beyond material and emotional possession and attainable only through an attentive practice leading to extinguishing of craving and aversion.^[2] According to Jainism, happiness and bliss is the natural state of the soul. A soul when liberated from all its karmas experiences infinite bliss, knowledge and perception.
The Chinese Confucian thinker Mencius, who 2300 years ago sought to give advice to the ruthless political leaders of the warring states period, was convinced that the mind played a mediating role between the "lesser self" (the physiological self) and the "greater self" (the moral self) and that getting the priorities right between these two would lead to sagehood. He argued that if we did not feel satisfaction or pleasure in nourishing one's "vital force" with "righteous deeds" that force would shrivel up (Mencius,6A:15 2A:2). More specifically, he mentions the experience of intoxicating joy if one celebrates the practice of the great virtues, especially through music.^[3]
About one hundred years later the Hindu thinker Patnjali, author of the Yoga Sutra, wrote quite exhaustively on the psychological and ontological roots of bliss.^[4]

Positive psychology

In his book ''Authentic Happiness'' Martin Seligman, one of the founders of Positive Psychology, describes happiness as consisting of both positive emotions (such as ecstasy and comfort) and positive activities (such as absorption and engagement). He presents three categories of positive emotions related to the past, present and future.
Positive emotions relating to the past include satisfaction, contentment, pride and serenity. Positive emotions relating to the future include optimism, hope and trust. Positive emotions about the present are divided into two categories which are significantly different: pleasure and gratifications.
The bodily and higher pleasures are "pleasures of the moment" and usually involve some external stimulus.
Gratifications involve full engagement, flow, elimination of self-consciousness, and blocking of felt emotions. But when a gratification comes to an end then positive emotions will be felt.
Gratifications can be obtained or increased by developing signature strengths and virtues. Authenticity is the derivation of gratification and positive emotions from exercising signature strengths. The good life comes from using signature strengths to obtain abundant gratification in, for example, enjoying work and creative activities. The most profound sense of happiness is experienced through the "meaningful life", achieved if one exercises one's uniques strengths and virtues in a purpose greater than one's own immediate goals.
Another interesting question is whether the tendency to experiance happiness is based on dispositional Affect or that it is a result of life circumstances.

Mechanistic view

Biological basis

A person's overall happiness is objectively measurable, it does have a real physiological component. The neurotransmitter dopamine, perhaps especially in the mesolimbic pathway projecting from the midbrain to structures such as the nucleus accumbens, is involved in desire and seems often related to pleasure. Pleasure can be induced artificially with drugs, perhaps most directly with opiates such as morphine, with activity on mu-opioid receptors. There are neural opioid systems that make and release the brain's own opioids, active at these receptors. Mu-opioid neural systems are complexly interrelated with the mesolimbic dopamine system. New science, using genetically altered mice, including ones deficient in dopamine or in mu-opioid receptors, is beginning to tease apart the functions of dopamine and mu-opioid systems, which some scientists (e.g., Kent C. Berridge) think are more directly related to happiness. Stefan Klein in his book "The Science of Happiness" links these biological foundations of happiness to the concepts and findings of Positive Psychology and Social Psychology.
Neuroscientist R.J. Davidson has developed reliable tests to objectively quantify subjective levels of happiness using fMRI and EEG.

In humans

When speaking of animals with the ability to reason (generally considered the exclusive domain of humans), goals are no longer limited to short term satisfaction of basic drives. Nevertheless, there remains a strong relationship of happiness to goal fulfillment and the brain's reinforcement mechanism, even if the goals themselves may be more complex and/or cerebral, longer term, and less selfish than a non-human animal's goals might be.
Philosophers observe that short-term gratification, while briefly generating happiness, often requires a trade-off with negative repercussions in the long run. Examples of this could be said to include developing technology and equipment that makes life easier but over time ends up harming the environment, causing illness or wasting financial or other resources. Various branches of philosophy, as well as some religious movements, suggest that "true" happiness only exists if it has no long-term detrimental effects. Classical Utilitarianism is a theory of ethics based on quantitative maximization of happiness.
From the observation that fish must become happy by swimming, and birds must become happy by flying, Aristotle points to the unique abilities of man as the route to happiness. Of all the animals only man can sit and contemplate reality. Of all the animals only man can develop social relations to the political level. Thus the contemplative life of a monk or professor, or the political life of a military commander or politician will be the happiest.
In contrast, Zhuangzi points out that only man is endowed with the ability necessary to generate complex language and thought--language and thought that can be used to distinguish between things and form dichotomies. These dichotomies then formed, man tries to find reasons to like one side of things and hate the other. Hence, he loses his ability to love freely, in true happiness, unlike animals.

Mystical (religious, spiritual, and mythological) view

Explanation of happiness in mystical traditions, especially in advanced spiritual techniques is related to full balance (conjunction, union, "secret marriage") of so called inner energy lines (energy channels of a soul or deepest dimension of the human): nadi (ancient Indian), gimel kavim (Hebrew), pillars, columns, gnostic ophis or caduceus. In balanced state two main lines (left & right, Ida & Pingala) form third line, called Shushumna or lashon hakodesh (hebr.). Speaking technically (full) activity of this third or central line is happiness. Left and right lines include all aspects of normal human life: sleep and awake, body and mind, physical and spiritual and so on. To attain balanced state of these 2 lines is a main task of life - a paradoxical result of all kinds of activities and endeavours combined with full relax or tranquility at the same time.
In Catholicism, the ultimate end of human existence consists in ''felicity'' (Latin equiv. to the Gk. eudaimonia), or "blessed happiness", described by the 13th-C. philosopher-theologian Thomas Aquinas as a Beatific Vision of God's essence in the next life. See ''Summa Theologiae''
Happiness forms a central theme of Buddhist teachings and the Eightfold Path that will lead its practitioner to Nirvana, a state of everlasting peace. In this teaching, happiness is only achieved by overcoming desire in all forms. The philosophy and practice of Buddhism also encourages the generation of compassion, the desire for the happiness and well being of others [1].
Recently series of articles have explored the issue of happiness through the processes in brain [2], through the choices that confront the present generation[3], and show that having less possessions and simplifying life leads to sustainability and happiness[4]. Another article analysis the relationship between evolution and happiness[5].

Worldwide happiness

The Satisfaction with Life Index is an attempt to show the average self-reported happiness (subjective life satisfaction) in different nations. This is an example of a recent trend to use direct measures of happiness, such as surveys asking people how happy they are, as an alternative to traditional measures of policy success to GDP or GNP. Some studies suggest that happiness can be measured effectively.^[5][6]
There are also several examples of measures that includes self-reported happiness as one variable. Happy Life Years, a concept brought by Dutch sociologist Ruut Veenhoven, combines self-reported happiness with life expectancy. The Happy Planet Index combines it with life expectancy and ecological footprint. Gross national happiness is a concept introduced by the King of Bhutan as an alternative to GDP but there is as yet no exact definition.

Happiness and economics

Typically market health measures such as GDP and GNP have been used as a measure of successful policy. However, although on average richer nations tend to be happier than poorer nations, beyond an average GDP/capita of about $15,000 a year, studies indicate the average income in a nation makes little difference to the average happiness of the people in the nation.^[7][8] It has been argued that happiness measures could be used not as a replacement for more traditional measures but as a supplement.^[9]

Measuring Happiness

In 2007, the I.T. department of FriendsFirst - an Irish Life Assurance company operating in Cherrywood, South County Dublin - introduced an initiative aimed at quantifying just how happy their I.T. staff really were. 'The Happiness Index' was a simple HTML page, and potential responses ranged from 0% (potentially only for the clinically depressed) to 100%, ranging in increments of 25%.
On a daily basis at 3.30 p.m. precisely, the submissions were pooled, and the average calculated. The Master of the Happiness Index then communicated the results to the department, in terms such as "24 of you are an average of 44.2% happy today" (on a Monday for example) or "17 of you are an average of 61% happy today (on a Thursday perhaps).
It was found that Happiness generally dipped on Tuesdays and Wednesdays but steadily rose on Thursdays and Fridays. Contrary to popular belief, Monday was not the saddest day of the week, with that mantle undoubtedly going to Tuesday, consistently the moodiest day.
Although it was a popular topic of 'water-cooler conversation', The Happiness Index was a short-lived phenomenon. The original intention was use it as a management tool, and to indicate the 'mood of the camp', the general feeling was that people's Happiness could not be measured in increments on 25%, and the Happiness Index was withdrawn from use in August 2007.

Religious involvement and happiness

There is now extensive research suggesting that 'religious' people are happier and less stressed.^[10][11] Surveys by Gallup, the National Opinion Research Centre and the Pew Organisation conclude that spiritually committed people are twice as likely to report being "very happy" than the least religiously committed people.^[12] An analysis of over 200 social studies contends that "high religiousness predicts a rather lower risk of depression and drug abuse and fewer suicide attempts, and more reports of satisfaction with life and a sense of well-being"^[13] and a review of 498 studies published in peer-reviewed journals concluded that a large majority of them showed a positive correlation between religious commitment and higher levels of perceived well-being and self-esteem, and lower levels of hypertension, depression and clinical delinquency.^[14][15] Studies by Keith Ward show that overall religion is a positive contributor to mental health^[16] and a meta-analysis of 34 recent studies published between 1990 and 2001 also found that religiosity has a salutary relationship with psychological adjustment, being related to less psychological distress, more life satisfaction, and better self-actualization.^[17] Finally, a recent systematic review of 850 research papers on the topic concluded that "the majority of well-conducted studies found that higher levels of religious involvement are positively associated with indicators of psychological well-being (life satisfaction, happiness, positive affect, and higher morale) and with less depression, suicidal thoughts and behavior, drug/alcohol use/abuse." ^[18]

See also

★ Bliss

★ cheeriness

★ enjoyment

★ subjective life satisfaction

★ ecstasy

★ Eudaimonia

★ euphoria

★ Gemütlichkeit

★ gezelligheid

★ mirth

References

★ Władysław Tatarkiewicz, ''Analysis of Happiness'', The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1976.

★ Daniel Gilbert, ''Stumbling on Happiness'', Knopf, 2006

★ Stefan Klein, ''The Science of Happiness'', Marlowe 2006, ISBN 1-56924-328-X

★ Richard Layard, ''Happiness: Lessons From A New Science'', Penguin, 2005.

★ David G. Myers, Ph. D ''The Pursuit of Happiness: Who is Happy-- and Why'', William Morrow and Co., 1992, ISBN 0-688-10550-5

★ Martin E.P. Seligman, Ph. D ''Authentic Happiness'', Free Press 2002, ISBN 0-7432-2298-9

★ Osho, ''Joy, The Happiness That Comes from Within'', St. Martin's Griffin 2004, ISBN 0-312-32074-4

Notes

1. Rorty, Amelie, ''Essays on Aristotle's Ethics'', pp.22-3, University of California Press (1980), ISBN 0-520-04041-4
2. Bhikkhu Nanamoli (1995). in Bhikkhu Bodhi: "The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Majjhima Nikaya"
3. Chan, Wing-tsit, ''A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963.
4. Levine, Marvin, ''The Positive Psychology of Buddhism and Yoga : Paths to a Mature Happiness'', Lawrence Erlbaum (2000), ISBN 0-805-83833-3
5. ''The True Measure of Success'' - Wired.com
6. ''"Happiness" is not enough''- Samuel Brittan: Templeton Lecture Inst. of Economic Affairs 22/11/01
7. Bruno S. Frey and Alois Stutzer Happiness and Economics, Princeton University Press, December 2001; published in the UK by John Wiley & Sons.
8. In Pursuit of Happiness Research. Is It Reliable? What Does It Imply for Policy? The Cato institute. April 11, 2007
9. ''A bigger economy doesn't always buy happiness'' - latimes.com
10. BBC
11. Time
12. Is Religion Dangerous? p156, citing David Myers ''The Science of Subjective Well-Being'' Guilford Press 2007
13. Smith,Timothy, Michael McCullough, and Justin Poll. 2003: “Religiousness and Depression: Evidence for a Main Effect and Moderating Influence of Stressful Life Events.” Psychological Bulletin 129(4):614–36.
14. Bryan Johnson & colleagues at the University of Pennsylvania (2002)
15. Is Religion Dangerous? cites similar results from the ''Handbook of Religion and Mental Health'' Harold Koenig (ed.) ISBN 978-0124176454
16. Is Religion Dangerous? Ch 9.
17. Hackney, Charles H. & Sanders, Glenn S. (2003) Religiosity and Mental Health: A Meta–Analysis of Recent Studies. ''Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion'' '42' (1), 43-55.
18. Moreira-Almeida Alexander, Lotufo Neto Francisco, Koenig Harold G. "Religiousness and mental health: a review". Rev. Bras. Psiquiatr. [serial on the Internet]. 2006 September, cited 2007 June 21, 2007 ; 28(3): 242-250.

External links

★ The World Database of Happiness — a register of scientific research on the subjective appreciation of life

★ History of Happiness - concise survey of influential theories

★ Journal of Happiness Studies - a social psychology journal with studies largely based on subjects' self-reports

★ The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry "Pleasure" -ancient and modern philosophers' and neuroscientists' approaches to happiness, with a long bibliography.

★ Happiness and Peace How can we get "Happiness and Peace"