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:''This article is about the city in the Middle East. For other uses of the name, see Hebron (disambiguation).''
'Hebron' (Arabic: 'al-Ḫalīl' or 'al Khalīl'; Hebrew: , Standard Hebrew: 'Ḥevron', Tiberian Hebrew: 'Ḥeḇrôn') is a city at the center of the Biblical Judea region in the West Bank, along the eponymous Mount Hebron. It is home to some 166,000 Palestinians and 700-800 Israeli settlers. Hebron lies 930 metres (3,050 ft) above sea level. It is the second holiest city in Judaism, after Jerusalem. Hebron
The name "Hebron" derives from the Hebrew name for the city, which ultimately comes from חבר (''habar'' 598), meaning "to be joined, coupled, allied." The name "Hebron" traces back to the same root as ''Haver'', or "friend".[1] In Arabic, "Ibrahim al-Khalil" ("إبراهيم الخليل") means "Ibrahim the friend," signifying that, according to Islamic teaching, Allah (God) chose Ibrahim (e.g. Abraham) as his friend.[2]
Hebron is located 30 km south of Jerusalem. It is famous for its grapes, limestone, pottery workshops and glassblowing factories. It is also the location of the major dairy-product manufacturer, al-Juneidi. The old city of Hebron is characterized by narrow, winding streets, flat-roofed stone houses, and old bazaars. It is home to Hebron University and the Palestine Polytechnic University.
The most famous historic site in Hebron sits on the Cave of the Patriarchs. The site is holy to all three Abrahamic faiths, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, due to their traditional connections to Abraham. According to ''Genesis'', he purchased the cave and the field surrounding it to bury his wife Sarah, and subsequently Abraham Isaac, Rebekah, Jacob and Leah were also buried in the cave (the remaining Matriarch, Rachel, is buried outside Bethlehem). For this reason, Jews also call the city "the City of the Patriarchs," and it is the second of the four holiest cities in Judaism (along with Jerusalem, Tiberias and Safed). Over and around the cave itself churches, synagogues and mosques have been built throughout history (see "History" below). The Isaac Hall is now the Ibrahimi Mosque, while the Abraham Hall and Jacob Hall serve as a Jewish synagogue. In medieval Christian tradition, Hebron was one of the three cities, the other two being Juttah and Ain Karim, that boasted of being the home of Mary's cousin, Elizabeth, the mother of John the Baptist and the wife of Zacharias.[3]
Adjacent to Hebron is the densely populated Israeli settlement of Kiryat Arba, a separate municipality, but within five minutes walking distance from Hebron's Cave of the Patriarchs.
Hebron is one of the most ancient cities in the Middle East, and one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. It was an ancient Canaanite royal city, which according to archaeological findings was probably founded in the 35th century BCE; It is mentioned in the Bible as being the site of Abraham's purchase of the Cave of the Patriarchs from the Hittites. Hebron is mentioned as being formerly called Kirjath-arba, or "city of four", possibly referring to a federation of four townlets, or four hills,[4] before being conquered by Joshua and the Israelites (Joshua ). Hebron became one of the principal centers of the Tribe of Judah, and the Judahite King David reigned in the city until the capture of Jerusalem, when the capital of the Kingdom of Israel was moved to that city. In 1998, during archeological excavations conducted at Tel Rumeida, jar handle stamps bearing Hebrew letters dating from 700 BCE, the oldest known inscription naming the city, were found in Hebron.[5]
After the destruction of the First Temple, most of the Jewish inhabitants of Hebron were exiled and their place was taken by Edomites at about 587 BCE. Herod the Great built the wall which still surrounds the Cave of Machpelah. During the first war against the Romans, Hebron was conquered by Simon Bar Giora, the leader of the Sicarii. Eventually it became part of the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Emperor Justinian I erected a Christian church over the Cave of Machpelah in the 6th century CE which was later destroyed by the Sassanid general Shahrbaraz in 614 when Khosrau II's armies besieged and took Jerusalem.
_-_Views_in_the_Holy_Land_-_n._428_-_Hebron._Northern_Half_of_the_City_-_recto.jpg)
The Islamic Caliphate established rule over Hebron without resistance in 638, and converted the Byzantine church at the site of Abraham's tomb into a mosque. Trade greatly expanded, in particular with Bedouins in the Negev and the population to the east of the Dead Sea. During this period, Muslims converted the Byzantine church at the site of the Cave of the Patriarchs into a mosque. Both Muslim and Christian sources note that Umar allowed Jews to build a synagogue and burial ground nearby, while the 9th century Karaite scholar Zedakah ben Shomron wrote about a permanent Jewish presence and described a Jewish man as the "keeper of the cave". Arab geographer al-Muqaddasi described "a synagogue and central kitchen which the Jews had set up for all the pilgrims rich and poor" at the turn of the century.
Arab rule lasted in the area, which was predominantly populated by peasants of various Christian persuasions,[6] until 1099, when the Christian Crusader Godfrey de Bouillon took Hebron and renamed it "Castellion Saint Abraham". He then gave Hebron to Gerard of Avesnes as the fief of Saint Abraham. Gerard of Avesnes was a knight from Hainault held hostage at Arsuf, north of Jaffa, who had been wounded by Godfrey's own forces during the siege of the port, and later returned by the Moslems to Godfrey as a token of good will[7]. As a Frankish garrison, soon governed by Tancred, Prince of Galilee, its defence was precarious, being 'little more than an island in a Moslem ocean'.[8] The Crusaders converted the mosque and the synagogue into a church and expelled Jews living there. In 1106, an Egyptian campaign thrust into southern Palestine and almost succeeded in wresting back Hebron from the crusaders from Baldwin I of Jerusalem, who personally led the counter-charge to beat the Moslem forces off. The Damascene nobleman and historian Ibn al-Qalanisi in his chronicle alludes at this time to the discovery of relics purported to be those of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in this period, a discovery which excited eager curiosity among all three communities in Palestine, Muslim, Jewish, and Christian.[9] Towards the end of the period of Crusader rule, in 1166 Maimonides was able to visit Hebron and wrote, "And on the first day of the week, the ninth day of the month of Marheshvan, I left Jerusalem for Hebron to kiss the graves of my forefathers in the Cave of Makhpela. And on that very day, I stood in the cave and I prayed, praised be God for everything."
The Kurdish Muslim Salaḥ ed-Dīn took Hebron in 1187, and changed the name of the city back to "Hebron". Richard the Lionheart subsequently took the city soon after. Richard of Cornwell, brought from England to settle the dangerous feuding between Templars and Hospitallers, whose rivalry imperilled the treaty guaranteeing regional stability stipulated with the Egyptian Sultan as-Salih Ayub, managed to impose peace on the area. But soon after his departure, feuding broke out and in 1241 the Templars mounted a damaging raid on what was, by now, Moslem Hebron, in violation of agreements.[10]
In 1260, al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baibars al-Bunduqdari established Mamluk rule; the minarets were built onto the structure of the Cave of Machpelah/Ibrahami Mosque at that time. During this period, a small Jewish community continued to live in Hebron; however, the climate was less tolerant of Jews and Christians than it had been under prior Islamic rule. Jews wishing to visit the tomb were often taxed, and in 1266 a decree was established barring Jews and Christians from entering the Tomb of the Patriarchs; they were only allowed to climb up to a certain step outside the Eastern wall. Sir John Mandeville wrote that the Jews and Christians were viewed "as dogs."[11] Many Jewish and Christian visitors wrote about the community, among them a student of Nachmanides (1270), Rabbi Ishtori Haparchi (1322), Stephen von Gumfenberg (1449), Rabbi Meshulam from Volterra (1481) and Rabbi Obadiah ben Abraham, a famous biblical commentator (1489). As early as 1333, there was an account from Hakham Yishak Hilo of Larissa, Greece, who arrived in Hebron and observed Jews working in the cotton trade and glassworks. He noted that in Hebron there was an "ancient synagogue in which they prayed day and night."
Throughout the Ottoman Empire rule, (1517-1917), groups of Jews from other parts of the Holy Land, and exiles from Spain and other parts of the diaspora went and settled there. Hebron at this time became a center of Jewish learning. In 1540 Rabbi Malkiel Ashkenazi bought a courtyard and established the Abraham Avinu Synagogue. In 1807, the Jewish community purchased a 5 dunam (5,000 m²) plot upon which the city's wholesale market stands today. Another pogrom took place in 1834. In 1831, Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt took over Hebron until 1840. The Jewish population numbered at this time roughly 750[12]
In December 1917 and during World War I, the British occupied Hebron. In the 1929 Hebron massacre, Arabs killed 67 Jews and wounded 60, and Jewish homes and synagogues were ransacked. Two years later, 35 families moved back into the ruins of the Jewish quarter, but after further riots, the British Government decided to move all Jews out of Hebron "to prevent another massacre". Hebron remained as a part of the British Mandate of Palestine until 1948.
Following the creation of the State of Israel in 1948, Jordan took over the control of Hebron and the rest of the West Bank. During this time, Israelis were not allowed to enter the West Bank. The Jewish Quarter was destroyed, the Jewish cemetery were desecrated,[13] 58 synagogues were destroyed[14] and an animal pen was built on the ruins of the Abraham Avinu Synagogue.
After the June 1967 Six Day War Hebron came under Israeli control with the rest of the West Bank.
In 1968, a group of Jewish settlers began to reside in the city, though a government compromise soon focused the Jewish presence to the east in the new settlement of Kiryat Arba. Beginning in 1979, Jewish settlers moved from Kiryat Arba to found the Committee of The Jewish Community of Hebron in the former Jewish neighbourhood near the Abraham Avinu Synagogue, and later to other Hebron neighborhoods including Tel Rumeida.
Since early 1997, following the Hebron Agreement, the city has been divided into two sectors: H1 and H2. The H1 sector, home to around 120,000 Palestinians, came under the control of the Palestinian Authority, in accordance with Hebron Protocol.[15] H2, which was inhabited by around 30,000 Palestinians,[16] remained under Israeli military control in order to protect some 600-800 Jewish residents living in the old Jewish quarter, now an enclave near the center of the town. During the years since the outbreak of the Second Intifada, the Palestinian population in H2 has decreased greatly, the drop in large part having been identified with extended curfews and movement restrictions placed on Palestinian residents of the sector by the IDF for what it says are security needs, including the closing of Palestinian shops in certain areas. Settler harassment of their Palestinian neighbours in H2 was a reason for several dozen Palestinian families to depart the areas adjacent to the Israeli population.[17][18][19] Ghost Town: Israel's Separation Policy and Forced Eviction of Palestinians from the Center of Hebron
The Hebron Jewish community has been subject to many attacks by Palestinian militants since the Oslo agreement,[20] especially during the period of the Second Intifada which saw suicide bombings, stabbings, and thousands of rounds fired on it from the Abu-Sneina neighbourhood above it. 12 Israelis were killed in one ambush of worshippers on the way to the Cave of the Patriarchs, while an infant was killed in a sniper attack.[21][22][23] Two Temporary International Presence in Hebron observers were killed by Palestinian gunmen in a shooting attack on the road to Hebron.[24][25]
In 1994, Israeli physician Baruch Goldstein opened fire on Muslims at prayer in the Cave of the Patriarchs massacre, killing 29, before the survivors overtook and killed him. This event was condemned by the Israeli Government, and the extreme right-wing Kach party was banned as a result.
A year later, Hebron's mayor, Mustafa Abdel Nabi, invited the Christian Peacemaker Teams to assist the local Palestinian community in opposition to what they describe as Israeli military occupation, collective punishment, settler harassment, home demolitions and land confiscation.[26]
The UN subsequently established an international unarmed observer force—the Temporary International Presence in Hebron (TIPH) to maintain a buffer between the Palestinian Arab population of the city and the Jews residing in their enclave in the old city. On February 8, 2006, TIPH temporarily left Hebron after attacks on their headquarters by some Palestinians angered by the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy.
Post-1967 data does not include the Jewish community of Kiryat Arba, which neighbors Hebron but is not technically part of it, and which has 7,000 Jewish residents.
Following the Six-Day War of 1967, Israel's position was parts of the West Bank be traded for peace with Jordan.[27]
In an interview with the ''BBC'' on July 12 of that year, Former Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion declared that, in the cause of peace, Israel should take nothing in the conquered territories, with the exception of Hebron, which 'is more Jewish even than Jerusalem'. According to Randolph Churchill, he argued that "Jerusalem became Jewish three thousand years ago under King David but Hebron became Jewish four thousand years ago under Abraham and included a number of settlements that were destroyed two days before Israel was established."[28]
In 1968, a group of Jews led by Rabbi Moshe Levinger rented out the main hotel in Hebron, and then refused to leave. According to the American Jewish historian Ian Lustik:
They moved to a nearby abandoned army camp and established the settlement of Kiryat Arba. In 1979, Levinger's wife led 30 Jewish women to take over the former Hadassah Hospital, Daboya Hospital, now Beit Hadassah in central Hebron, founding the Committee of The Jewish Community of Hebron. Before long this received Israeli government approval and a further three Jewish enclaves in the city were established with army assistance, and settlers are currently reported to be trying to purchase more homes in the city.[29][30]
Jews living in these settlements and their supporters claim that they are resettling areas where Jews have lived since time immemorial, for example citing the Star of David (see photo) carved in the keystone above some of the doorways of Arab populated homes in the old city. Christian Peacemaking Teams. HEBRON UPDATE: July 11-16, 2004, 2004-7-26. Christian Peacemaking Teams. HEBRON UPDATE: August 17-23, 2004, 2004-9-1. However, some reports, both foreign and Israeli are sharply critical of the settlers.The Boston Globe. A top Israeli Says Settlers Incited Riot In Hebron 2002-7-31. (was here)The Scotsman. "Settlers’ revenge leaves Hebron bleeding", 2002-7-30.
The sentiments of Jews who fled the 1929 Hebron massacre and their descendants are mixed. Some advocate the continued settlement of Hebron as a way to continue the Jewish heritage in the city, while others suggest that settlers should try to live in peace with the Arabs there, with some even recommending the complete pullout of all settlers in Hebron.Jerusalem Post. "Field News 10/2/2002 Hebron Jews' offspring divided over city's fate", 2006-05-16. Descendants supporting the latter views have met with Palestinian leaders in Hebron.Philadelphia Inquirer. "Hebron descendants decry actions of current settlers They are kin of the Jews ousted in 1929", 1997-03-03. The two most public examples of the descendants' views are the 1997 statement made by an association comprised of some descendants dissociating themselves from the then-current Jewish settlers in Hebron and calling them an obstacle to peace, and the May 15, 2006 letter sent to the Israeli government by other descendants urging the government to continue its support of Jewish settlement in Hebron in their names, and urged it to allow the return of eight Jewish families evacuated the previous January from the homes they set up in empty shops near the Avraham Avinu neighborhood.
Adjacent to the municipality building, Hebron archaeological museum has a collection of artifacts from the Cannanite to the Islamic periods. The Oak Of Abraham, also called Oak of Mamre is an ancient oak tree which marks the place where according to tradition Abraham pitched his tent. It is estimated that this oak is approximately 5000 years old. The Russian Orthodox Church owns the site and the nearby monastery. Other notable sites are The Well of Abraham and the tombs of Abner ben Ner (the commander of Saul and David's army), Ruth and Jesse.
Palestinian Hebronites are known amongst the Levant for their distinguished colloquial Arabic accent. Hebronites speak while stretching their words giving it a long musical sound.
★ Abraham, who made his home here
★ Malkiel Ashkenazi, leader of Sephardic Jewish Community of Hebron, 16th century
★ Abraham Azulai (c.1570-1643) rabbi, Kabbalistic author and commentator, buried in Hebron's ancient Jewish cemetery.
★ Issam Bader, Artist.
★ Mazen Dana, Journalist.
★ King David
★ Eliyahu de Vidas, Medieval Kabbalist
★ Noam Federman
★ Baruch Goldstein, mass murderer
★ Hasan Hourani, Artist.
★ Khaled Hourani, Artist.
★ Yousef H. Katalo, Artist.
★ Rabbi Moshe Levinger, a pioneer of the contemporary Jewish Community (the new yishuv).
★ Rabbi Dov Lior, rabbi of Kiryat Arba
★ Sheikh Mohammed Ali, Mayor of Hebron from 1948-76.
★ Baruch Nachshon, Artist.
★ Nafez Assaily Peace activist
★ Shalhevet Pass, terrorist attack victim
★ Avraham Shmulevich ("Bead Artseinu"), Activist, Politician
★ David Wilder - Spokesman, The Jewish Community of Hebron
★ Abas Zaki, Politician.
★ LMLK seals (oldest inscription naming the city dates to 700 BCE if HBRN=Hebron)
★ Israeli-Palestinian conflict
★ Temporary International Presence in Hebron
★ Hebron Yeshiva
★ Riots in Palestine of 1929
★ al-Aqsa Intifada
★ Palestinian Child Arts Center
★ Photographs of Hebron
1. The name Hebron: meaning, origin, and etymology
2. Surah 4 Ayara (verse) 125, ''Qur'an'' (source text)
3. Marcello Craveri,''The Life of Jesus:An assessment through modern historical evidence,''1967 p.25
4. Robert Alter, tr.''Genesis: Translation and Commentary'', 1996 p.108
5. http://www.hebron.com/english/article.php?id=268
6. Steven Runciman,''A History of the Crusades (1951) 1965 vol.1 p.303
7. Runciman, ibid.pp.308-309
8. Runciman,''A History of the Crusades'', vol.2 p.4
9. ‘C.Kohler, ‘Un nouveau récit de l’invention des Patriarches Abraham, Isaac et Jacob à Hebron,’ in ''Revue de l’Orient Latin'', vol 4 (1896) Paris pp.477ff. (2) Runciman, ''A History of the Crusades'' vol.2 p.319
10. Runciman,''History of the Crusades'' vol.3 p.219
11. Chapter IX
12. James Parkes,''Whose Land? A History of the Peoples of Palestine'',(1949)1970 p.227
13. Jordan’s Desecration of Jerusalem
14. Jordanian Annexation of West Bank: Resolution Adopted by the House of Deputies
15. Protocol Concerning the Redeployment in Hebron
16. Ghost town Meron Rapoport
17. Israeli NGO issues damning report on situation in Hebron
18. Hebron, Area H-2: Settlements Cause Mass Departure of Palestinians "In total, 169 families lived on the three streets in September 2000, when the intifada began. Since then, seventy-three families – forty-three percent – have left their homes."
19. Palestine Refugees: a challenge for the International Community
20. Fatal Terrorist Attacks in Israel Since the DOP (Sept 1993)
21. Casualties of War The Jerusalem Post
22. Victims of Palestinian Violence and Terrorism since September 2000
23. Major Terrorist Attacks in Israel
24. Two Norwegian observers killed near Hebron: Israeli TV, ABC News online, March 27, 2002.
25. Two TIPH members killed near Hebron, Temporary International Presence in the City of Hebron website, March 27, 2002.
26. History/Mission of CPT
27. Chaim Herzog ''Heroes of Israel'' p.253.
28. Randolph Churchill, Winston S.Churchill, ''The Six Day War,''1967 p.199 citing 'The World at One' BBC radio, July 12,1967
29. Hebron settlers try to buy more homes
30. Hebron settlers give up comfort to expand Jewish holdings
'Hebron' (Arabic: 'al-Ḫalīl' or 'al Khalīl'; Hebrew: , Standard Hebrew: 'Ḥevron', Tiberian Hebrew: 'Ḥeḇrôn') is a city at the center of the Biblical Judea region in the West Bank, along the eponymous Mount Hebron. It is home to some 166,000 Palestinians and 700-800 Israeli settlers. Hebron lies 930 metres (3,050 ft) above sea level. It is the second holiest city in Judaism, after Jerusalem. Hebron
The name "Hebron" derives from the Hebrew name for the city, which ultimately comes from חבר (''habar'' 598), meaning "to be joined, coupled, allied." The name "Hebron" traces back to the same root as ''Haver'', or "friend".[1] In Arabic, "Ibrahim al-Khalil" ("إبراهيم الخليل") means "Ibrahim the friend," signifying that, according to Islamic teaching, Allah (God) chose Ibrahim (e.g. Abraham) as his friend.[2]
Hebron is located 30 km south of Jerusalem. It is famous for its grapes, limestone, pottery workshops and glassblowing factories. It is also the location of the major dairy-product manufacturer, al-Juneidi. The old city of Hebron is characterized by narrow, winding streets, flat-roofed stone houses, and old bazaars. It is home to Hebron University and the Palestine Polytechnic University.
The Cave of the Patriarchs, revered by Jews and Muslims.
The most famous historic site in Hebron sits on the Cave of the Patriarchs. The site is holy to all three Abrahamic faiths, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, due to their traditional connections to Abraham. According to ''Genesis'', he purchased the cave and the field surrounding it to bury his wife Sarah, and subsequently Abraham Isaac, Rebekah, Jacob and Leah were also buried in the cave (the remaining Matriarch, Rachel, is buried outside Bethlehem). For this reason, Jews also call the city "the City of the Patriarchs," and it is the second of the four holiest cities in Judaism (along with Jerusalem, Tiberias and Safed). Over and around the cave itself churches, synagogues and mosques have been built throughout history (see "History" below). The Isaac Hall is now the Ibrahimi Mosque, while the Abraham Hall and Jacob Hall serve as a Jewish synagogue. In medieval Christian tradition, Hebron was one of the three cities, the other two being Juttah and Ain Karim, that boasted of being the home of Mary's cousin, Elizabeth, the mother of John the Baptist and the wife of Zacharias.[3]
Adjacent to Hebron is the densely populated Israeli settlement of Kiryat Arba, a separate municipality, but within five minutes walking distance from Hebron's Cave of the Patriarchs.
History
Ancient period
Hebron is one of the most ancient cities in the Middle East, and one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. It was an ancient Canaanite royal city, which according to archaeological findings was probably founded in the 35th century BCE; It is mentioned in the Bible as being the site of Abraham's purchase of the Cave of the Patriarchs from the Hittites. Hebron is mentioned as being formerly called Kirjath-arba, or "city of four", possibly referring to a federation of four townlets, or four hills,[4] before being conquered by Joshua and the Israelites (Joshua ). Hebron became one of the principal centers of the Tribe of Judah, and the Judahite King David reigned in the city until the capture of Jerusalem, when the capital of the Kingdom of Israel was moved to that city. In 1998, during archeological excavations conducted at Tel Rumeida, jar handle stamps bearing Hebrew letters dating from 700 BCE, the oldest known inscription naming the city, were found in Hebron.[5]
After the destruction of the First Temple, most of the Jewish inhabitants of Hebron were exiled and their place was taken by Edomites at about 587 BCE. Herod the Great built the wall which still surrounds the Cave of Machpelah. During the first war against the Romans, Hebron was conquered by Simon Bar Giora, the leader of the Sicarii. Eventually it became part of the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Emperor Justinian I erected a Christian church over the Cave of Machpelah in the 6th century CE which was later destroyed by the Sassanid general Shahrbaraz in 614 when Khosrau II's armies besieged and took Jerusalem.
_-_Views_in_the_Holy_Land_-_n._428_-_Hebron._Northern_Half_of_the_City_-_recto.jpg)
Northern Hebron in the mid-19th century (1822-1898)
Medieval period
The Islamic Caliphate established rule over Hebron without resistance in 638, and converted the Byzantine church at the site of Abraham's tomb into a mosque. Trade greatly expanded, in particular with Bedouins in the Negev and the population to the east of the Dead Sea. During this period, Muslims converted the Byzantine church at the site of the Cave of the Patriarchs into a mosque. Both Muslim and Christian sources note that Umar allowed Jews to build a synagogue and burial ground nearby, while the 9th century Karaite scholar Zedakah ben Shomron wrote about a permanent Jewish presence and described a Jewish man as the "keeper of the cave". Arab geographer al-Muqaddasi described "a synagogue and central kitchen which the Jews had set up for all the pilgrims rich and poor" at the turn of the century.
Arab rule lasted in the area, which was predominantly populated by peasants of various Christian persuasions,[6] until 1099, when the Christian Crusader Godfrey de Bouillon took Hebron and renamed it "Castellion Saint Abraham". He then gave Hebron to Gerard of Avesnes as the fief of Saint Abraham. Gerard of Avesnes was a knight from Hainault held hostage at Arsuf, north of Jaffa, who had been wounded by Godfrey's own forces during the siege of the port, and later returned by the Moslems to Godfrey as a token of good will[7]. As a Frankish garrison, soon governed by Tancred, Prince of Galilee, its defence was precarious, being 'little more than an island in a Moslem ocean'.[8] The Crusaders converted the mosque and the synagogue into a church and expelled Jews living there. In 1106, an Egyptian campaign thrust into southern Palestine and almost succeeded in wresting back Hebron from the crusaders from Baldwin I of Jerusalem, who personally led the counter-charge to beat the Moslem forces off. The Damascene nobleman and historian Ibn al-Qalanisi in his chronicle alludes at this time to the discovery of relics purported to be those of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in this period, a discovery which excited eager curiosity among all three communities in Palestine, Muslim, Jewish, and Christian.[9] Towards the end of the period of Crusader rule, in 1166 Maimonides was able to visit Hebron and wrote, "And on the first day of the week, the ninth day of the month of Marheshvan, I left Jerusalem for Hebron to kiss the graves of my forefathers in the Cave of Makhpela. And on that very day, I stood in the cave and I prayed, praised be God for everything."
Maimonides established a yearly holiday for himself and his sons, the 9th of Cheshvan, commemorating the day he merited to pray at the Cave of the Patriarchs.
The Kurdish Muslim Salaḥ ed-Dīn took Hebron in 1187, and changed the name of the city back to "Hebron". Richard the Lionheart subsequently took the city soon after. Richard of Cornwell, brought from England to settle the dangerous feuding between Templars and Hospitallers, whose rivalry imperilled the treaty guaranteeing regional stability stipulated with the Egyptian Sultan as-Salih Ayub, managed to impose peace on the area. But soon after his departure, feuding broke out and in 1241 the Templars mounted a damaging raid on what was, by now, Moslem Hebron, in violation of agreements.[10]
In 1260, al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baibars al-Bunduqdari established Mamluk rule; the minarets were built onto the structure of the Cave of Machpelah/Ibrahami Mosque at that time. During this period, a small Jewish community continued to live in Hebron; however, the climate was less tolerant of Jews and Christians than it had been under prior Islamic rule. Jews wishing to visit the tomb were often taxed, and in 1266 a decree was established barring Jews and Christians from entering the Tomb of the Patriarchs; they were only allowed to climb up to a certain step outside the Eastern wall. Sir John Mandeville wrote that the Jews and Christians were viewed "as dogs."[11] Many Jewish and Christian visitors wrote about the community, among them a student of Nachmanides (1270), Rabbi Ishtori Haparchi (1322), Stephen von Gumfenberg (1449), Rabbi Meshulam from Volterra (1481) and Rabbi Obadiah ben Abraham, a famous biblical commentator (1489). As early as 1333, there was an account from Hakham Yishak Hilo of Larissa, Greece, who arrived in Hebron and observed Jews working in the cotton trade and glassworks. He noted that in Hebron there was an "ancient synagogue in which they prayed day and night."
Ottoman rule
Throughout the Ottoman Empire rule, (1517-1917), groups of Jews from other parts of the Holy Land, and exiles from Spain and other parts of the diaspora went and settled there. Hebron at this time became a center of Jewish learning. In 1540 Rabbi Malkiel Ashkenazi bought a courtyard and established the Abraham Avinu Synagogue. In 1807, the Jewish community purchased a 5 dunam (5,000 m²) plot upon which the city's wholesale market stands today. Another pogrom took place in 1834. In 1831, Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt took over Hebron until 1840. The Jewish population numbered at this time roughly 750[12]
Under the British mandate
In December 1917 and during World War I, the British occupied Hebron. In the 1929 Hebron massacre, Arabs killed 67 Jews and wounded 60, and Jewish homes and synagogues were ransacked. Two years later, 35 families moved back into the ruins of the Jewish quarter, but after further riots, the British Government decided to move all Jews out of Hebron "to prevent another massacre". Hebron remained as a part of the British Mandate of Palestine until 1948.
Jordanian rule
Shavei Hebron yeshiva in the Beit Romano building of the Jewish quarter in old Hebron. The modern city is visible at the top edge.
Following the creation of the State of Israel in 1948, Jordan took over the control of Hebron and the rest of the West Bank. During this time, Israelis were not allowed to enter the West Bank. The Jewish Quarter was destroyed, the Jewish cemetery were desecrated,[13] 58 synagogues were destroyed[14] and an animal pen was built on the ruins of the Abraham Avinu Synagogue.
Israeli rule
After the June 1967 Six Day War Hebron came under Israeli control with the rest of the West Bank.
In 1968, a group of Jewish settlers began to reside in the city, though a government compromise soon focused the Jewish presence to the east in the new settlement of Kiryat Arba. Beginning in 1979, Jewish settlers moved from Kiryat Arba to found the Committee of The Jewish Community of Hebron in the former Jewish neighbourhood near the Abraham Avinu Synagogue, and later to other Hebron neighborhoods including Tel Rumeida.
Post Oslo Accord
Open-air market in city being patrolled by Israeli troops (2004).
Since early 1997, following the Hebron Agreement, the city has been divided into two sectors: H1 and H2. The H1 sector, home to around 120,000 Palestinians, came under the control of the Palestinian Authority, in accordance with Hebron Protocol.[15] H2, which was inhabited by around 30,000 Palestinians,[16] remained under Israeli military control in order to protect some 600-800 Jewish residents living in the old Jewish quarter, now an enclave near the center of the town. During the years since the outbreak of the Second Intifada, the Palestinian population in H2 has decreased greatly, the drop in large part having been identified with extended curfews and movement restrictions placed on Palestinian residents of the sector by the IDF for what it says are security needs, including the closing of Palestinian shops in certain areas. Settler harassment of their Palestinian neighbours in H2 was a reason for several dozen Palestinian families to depart the areas adjacent to the Israeli population.[17][18][19] Ghost Town: Israel's Separation Policy and Forced Eviction of Palestinians from the Center of Hebron
The Hebron Jewish community has been subject to many attacks by Palestinian militants since the Oslo agreement,[20] especially during the period of the Second Intifada which saw suicide bombings, stabbings, and thousands of rounds fired on it from the Abu-Sneina neighbourhood above it. 12 Israelis were killed in one ambush of worshippers on the way to the Cave of the Patriarchs, while an infant was killed in a sniper attack.[21][22][23] Two Temporary International Presence in Hebron observers were killed by Palestinian gunmen in a shooting attack on the road to Hebron.[24][25]
In 1994, Israeli physician Baruch Goldstein opened fire on Muslims at prayer in the Cave of the Patriarchs massacre, killing 29, before the survivors overtook and killed him. This event was condemned by the Israeli Government, and the extreme right-wing Kach party was banned as a result.
A year later, Hebron's mayor, Mustafa Abdel Nabi, invited the Christian Peacemaker Teams to assist the local Palestinian community in opposition to what they describe as Israeli military occupation, collective punishment, settler harassment, home demolitions and land confiscation.[26]
The UN subsequently established an international unarmed observer force—the Temporary International Presence in Hebron (TIPH) to maintain a buffer between the Palestinian Arab population of the city and the Jews residing in their enclave in the old city. On February 8, 2006, TIPH temporarily left Hebron after attacks on their headquarters by some Palestinians angered by the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy.
Demographics
| Year | Muslims | Christians | Jews | Total | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1538 | 749 h | 7 h | 20 h | 776 h | (h = households) Source: Cohen & Lewis |
| 1817 | 500 | Hebron | |||
| 1838 | 700 | ||||
| 1837 | 423 | Montefiore census | |||
| 1866 | 497 | Montefiore census | |||
| 1922 | 16,074 | 73 | 430 | 16,577 | British Mandate Census |
| 1929 | 700 | ||||
| 1930 | 0 | ||||
| 1931 | 17,275 | 112 | 135 | 17,522 | British Mandate Census |
| 1944 | 24,400 | 150 | 0 | 24,550 | Estimate |
| 1967 | 38,203 | 106 | 0 | 38,309 | Census |
| 1997 | 130,000 | 3 | 530 | 130,533 |
Post-1967 data does not include the Jewish community of Kiryat Arba, which neighbors Hebron but is not technically part of it, and which has 7,000 Jewish residents.
Jewish settlement after 1967
Star of David carved above entrance to a now Arab home in the old city of Hebron.
Following the Six-Day War of 1967, Israel's position was parts of the West Bank be traded for peace with Jordan.[27]
In an interview with the ''BBC'' on July 12 of that year, Former Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion declared that, in the cause of peace, Israel should take nothing in the conquered territories, with the exception of Hebron, which 'is more Jewish even than Jerusalem'. According to Randolph Churchill, he argued that "Jerusalem became Jewish three thousand years ago under King David but Hebron became Jewish four thousand years ago under Abraham and included a number of settlements that were destroyed two days before Israel was established."[28]
In 1968, a group of Jews led by Rabbi Moshe Levinger rented out the main hotel in Hebron, and then refused to leave. According to the American Jewish historian Ian Lustik:
The government was caught by surprise. Internally divided, depending for its survival on the votes of the National Religious Party, and reluctant to forcibly evacuate the settlers from a city whose Jewish population had been massacred thirty-nine years earlier, the Labor government backed away from its original prohibition against civilian settlement in the area and permitted this group to remain within a military compound. After more than a year and a half of agitation and a bloody Arab attack on the Hebron settlers, the government agreed to allow Levinger's group to establish a town on the outskirts of the city.
They moved to a nearby abandoned army camp and established the settlement of Kiryat Arba. In 1979, Levinger's wife led 30 Jewish women to take over the former Hadassah Hospital, Daboya Hospital, now Beit Hadassah in central Hebron, founding the Committee of The Jewish Community of Hebron. Before long this received Israeli government approval and a further three Jewish enclaves in the city were established with army assistance, and settlers are currently reported to be trying to purchase more homes in the city.[29][30]
Jews living in these settlements and their supporters claim that they are resettling areas where Jews have lived since time immemorial, for example citing the Star of David (see photo) carved in the keystone above some of the doorways of Arab populated homes in the old city. Christian Peacemaking Teams. HEBRON UPDATE: July 11-16, 2004, 2004-7-26. Christian Peacemaking Teams. HEBRON UPDATE: August 17-23, 2004, 2004-9-1. However, some reports, both foreign and Israeli are sharply critical of the settlers.The Boston Globe. A top Israeli Says Settlers Incited Riot In Hebron 2002-7-31. (was here)The Scotsman. "Settlers’ revenge leaves Hebron bleeding", 2002-7-30.
The sentiments of Jews who fled the 1929 Hebron massacre and their descendants are mixed. Some advocate the continued settlement of Hebron as a way to continue the Jewish heritage in the city, while others suggest that settlers should try to live in peace with the Arabs there, with some even recommending the complete pullout of all settlers in Hebron.Jerusalem Post. "Field News 10/2/2002 Hebron Jews' offspring divided over city's fate", 2006-05-16. Descendants supporting the latter views have met with Palestinian leaders in Hebron.Philadelphia Inquirer. "Hebron descendants decry actions of current settlers They are kin of the Jews ousted in 1929", 1997-03-03. The two most public examples of the descendants' views are the 1997 statement made by an association comprised of some descendants dissociating themselves from the then-current Jewish settlers in Hebron and calling them an obstacle to peace, and the May 15, 2006 letter sent to the Israeli government by other descendants urging the government to continue its support of Jewish settlement in Hebron in their names, and urged it to allow the return of eight Jewish families evacuated the previous January from the homes they set up in empty shops near the Avraham Avinu neighborhood.
Cultural, historical and sporting landmarks
Adjacent to the municipality building, Hebron archaeological museum has a collection of artifacts from the Cannanite to the Islamic periods. The Oak Of Abraham, also called Oak of Mamre is an ancient oak tree which marks the place where according to tradition Abraham pitched his tent. It is estimated that this oak is approximately 5000 years old. The Russian Orthodox Church owns the site and the nearby monastery. Other notable sites are The Well of Abraham and the tombs of Abner ben Ner (the commander of Saul and David's army), Ruth and Jesse.
Languages and accents
Palestinian Hebronites are known amongst the Levant for their distinguished colloquial Arabic accent. Hebronites speak while stretching their words giving it a long musical sound.
Notable people relating to Hebron
★ Abraham, who made his home here
★ Malkiel Ashkenazi, leader of Sephardic Jewish Community of Hebron, 16th century
★ Abraham Azulai (c.1570-1643) rabbi, Kabbalistic author and commentator, buried in Hebron's ancient Jewish cemetery.
★ Issam Bader, Artist.
★ Mazen Dana, Journalist.
★ King David
★ Eliyahu de Vidas, Medieval Kabbalist
★ Noam Federman
★ Baruch Goldstein, mass murderer
★ Hasan Hourani, Artist.
★ Khaled Hourani, Artist.
★ Yousef H. Katalo, Artist.
★ Rabbi Moshe Levinger, a pioneer of the contemporary Jewish Community (the new yishuv).
★ Rabbi Dov Lior, rabbi of Kiryat Arba
★ Sheikh Mohammed Ali, Mayor of Hebron from 1948-76.
★ Baruch Nachshon, Artist.
★ Nafez Assaily Peace activist
★ Shalhevet Pass, terrorist attack victim
★ Avraham Shmulevich ("Bead Artseinu"), Activist, Politician
★ David Wilder - Spokesman, The Jewish Community of Hebron
★ Abas Zaki, Politician.
See also
★ LMLK seals (oldest inscription naming the city dates to 700 BCE if HBRN=Hebron)
★ Israeli-Palestinian conflict
★ Temporary International Presence in Hebron
★ Hebron Yeshiva
★ Riots in Palestine of 1929
★ al-Aqsa Intifada
★ Palestinian Child Arts Center
External links
★ Photographs of Hebron
References
1. The name Hebron: meaning, origin, and etymology
2. Surah 4 Ayara (verse) 125, ''Qur'an'' (source text)
3. Marcello Craveri,''The Life of Jesus:An assessment through modern historical evidence,''1967 p.25
4. Robert Alter, tr.''Genesis: Translation and Commentary'', 1996 p.108
5. http://www.hebron.com/english/article.php?id=268
6. Steven Runciman,''A History of the Crusades (1951) 1965 vol.1 p.303
7. Runciman, ibid.pp.308-309
8. Runciman,''A History of the Crusades'', vol.2 p.4
9. ‘C.Kohler, ‘Un nouveau récit de l’invention des Patriarches Abraham, Isaac et Jacob à Hebron,’ in ''Revue de l’Orient Latin'', vol 4 (1896) Paris pp.477ff. (2) Runciman, ''A History of the Crusades'' vol.2 p.319
10. Runciman,''History of the Crusades'' vol.3 p.219
11. Chapter IX
12. James Parkes,''Whose Land? A History of the Peoples of Palestine'',(1949)1970 p.227
13. Jordan’s Desecration of Jerusalem
14. Jordanian Annexation of West Bank: Resolution Adopted by the House of Deputies
15. Protocol Concerning the Redeployment in Hebron
16. Ghost town Meron Rapoport
17. Israeli NGO issues damning report on situation in Hebron
18. Hebron, Area H-2: Settlements Cause Mass Departure of Palestinians "In total, 169 families lived on the three streets in September 2000, when the intifada began. Since then, seventy-three families – forty-three percent – have left their homes."
19. Palestine Refugees: a challenge for the International Community
20. Fatal Terrorist Attacks in Israel Since the DOP (Sept 1993)
21. Casualties of War The Jerusalem Post
22. Victims of Palestinian Violence and Terrorism since September 2000
23. Major Terrorist Attacks in Israel
24. Two Norwegian observers killed near Hebron: Israeli TV, ABC News online, March 27, 2002.
25. Two TIPH members killed near Hebron, Temporary International Presence in the City of Hebron website, March 27, 2002.
26. History/Mission of CPT
27. Chaim Herzog ''Heroes of Israel'' p.253.
28. Randolph Churchill, Winston S.Churchill, ''The Six Day War,''1967 p.199 citing 'The World at One' BBC radio, July 12,1967
29. Hebron settlers try to buy more homes
30. Hebron settlers give up comfort to expand Jewish holdings
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