'HÄ«nayÄna' (
Chinese: å°ä¹˜ ''XiÇŽoshèng'';
Japanese: ''ShÅjÅ'';
Vietnamese: ''Tiểu thừa'') is a
Sanskrit and
Pali term literally meaning:, "the low vehicle", "the inferior vehicle", or "the miserable vehicle", where "vehicle" ('yÄna') means "a way of going to enlightenment". It is a polemical term coined by
MahÄyÄna Buddhists to denigrate their opponents
[1]. The term appeared around the 1st or 2nd century CE. Its use in scholarly publications is controversial
[2]. There are differing views on the use and meaning of the term, both among scholars and within Buddhism.
The legitimacy of using the term Hinayana to refer to the
early Buddhist schools, including the contemporary
Theravada, is disputed
[3]. By the Mahayana schools and groups in China, Korea, Tibet, and Japan the term is felt to be only slightly pejorative, or not pejorative at all
[4]. By some it is used with respect proper to teachings coming direct from the
Buddha.
In brief
HÄ«nayÄna is used by Mahayanists as a name to refer variously to one or more ''doctrines'', ''traditions'', ''practitioners'' or ''thoughts'' that are generally concerned with the achievement of
Nirvana as an
Arahant or a
Pratyeka-Buddha, as opposed to the achievement of liberation as a
Samyaksambuddha, wherein the Samyaksambuddha (according to
Mahayana lore) is deemed to operate from a basis of vowing to effect the spiritual liberation of all beings and creatures from the suffering of
samsara (not just himself or a small number of others). HÄ«nayÄna is sometimes said to be corresponding solely to the
Early Buddhist Schools, and not to the current
Theravada school, while sometimes it is held to be also cognate with the modern
Theravada tradition. Many hold that the term was coined to be purposely pejorative, while others do not.
★ HÄ«nayÄna as ''doctrine'' would (from a Mahayana perspective) include the
Sutras taught by
Buddha that admonish the practitioner to follow the Sravaka path or strive for Paccekabuddhahood. In such teachings there is no emphasis on pledging to emancipate the totality of sentient beings from the pain and bondage of
samsara - the focus is more on practice for individual liberation. However, the Buddha did not teach in this manner according to the
Pali Canon. In the
Pali Canon the Buddha never admonishes his disciples to strive to become a
Paccekabuddha, and 'sravaka' just translates as follower or disciple: ''any'' disciple of Buddha would be a savaka
[5]. There is thus no mention of a 'Savakapath' as 'savaka' refers to ''all'' disciples, not to a limited class of disciples.
★ HÄ«nayÄna as a ''tradition'' in general would include those schools who solely follow the sutras of the
Pali Canon or the
Agamas (being,
Pre-sectarian Buddhism and the
Early Buddhist Schools). Some recent Mahayanist scholars have also used the name
Nikaya Buddhism to refer to these schools. Some of these schools actively rejected the
Mahayana sutras during the time of the rise of the Mahayana, around 2,000 years ago.
★ HÄ«nayÄna as ''practitioner'' would be an individual of any school (including Mahayana) who practices to eliminate
suffering according to basic Buddhist teachings; if successful, he is called an
Arahant. As a follower of what Mahayana terms "Hinayana", he or she will not strive to become a Buddha, nor will he or she take the Mahayana Bodhisattva-vow of pledging to come back into
samsara countless times in the future in order to liberate all other sentient beings from suffering. Also, the 'Pratyeka-Buddha' is regarded by Mahayana as being Hinayanist. Mahayana only considers the ideal of a
Samyaksambuddha 'Great'; the other enlightened ideals are considered by Mahayana orthodoxy to be (depending on the translation) either 'inferior', 'degrading', 'base' or 'low'.
Within Buddhism the differing interpretations of 'HÄ«nayÄna' have consequences that are sometimes quite far-reaching. It is primarily the interpretation of HÄ«nayÄna as a tradition that has led to the most concern, especially as many people have seen the term as a slur against
Pre-sectarian Buddhism,
Theravada and the other
Early Buddhist schools (the
Nikaya Buddhism–schools). These schools solely follow the sutras that are included in the
Pali Canon, and which are aimed at helping to achieve the extinction of
suffering, as attained by the
Arahants.
Origins of 'HÄ«nayÄna': Vehicles and Paths
It appears that the distinction between vehicles and paths arises in early
Mahayana sutras, such as the ''Lotus Sutra'', where it is stated that there is one ''path'' - the path to
Nirvana -, but there are different ''vehicles''. The vehicles are described (by Mahayana) as representing the fruit of the
two types of Buddha found in the
Pali Canon, plus the path of the
Arahants.
For instance, in Chapter three of the ''Lotus Sutra'', there is a parable of a father promising three carts to lure sons out of a burning building, where the goat-cart represents the Sravaka-vehicle; the deer-cart, Pratyeka-Buddhahood; and the bullock-cart, Samyaksambuddha-hood. According to early Mahayana (as found in the Lotus sutra), it is the ''vehicles'' that are taught as a method for journeying on the path to
enlightenment. It is here that we can see the basis for term being used to indicate differences of doctrine. The Lotus Sutra declares that the bullock-cart is "supremely restful", implying that the goat-cart and the deer-cart are inferior to the bullock-cart. This is where we begin to see the terminological origins for the term ''HÄ«nayÄna'': The Sravakayana and the Pratyekabuddhayana as vehicles inferior to the superior bullock-cart of the ''Mahayana''.
The Dharmakshema
Mahaparinirvana Sutra also speaks of the inferior nature of the Hinayana when compared to the higher level of the Mahayana. In that sutra the Buddha states:
"Noble son, there are also two groups of people within this great congregation: those who seek the Inferior Way (''hÄ«nayÄna'') and those who seek the Great Way (''mahÄyÄna''). In past days I turned the lesser Wheel of the Dharma for the ÅšrÄvakas, but now here in KuÅ›inagara I turn the great Wheel of the Dharma for Bodhisattvas."
The term first appeared in the Mahayana
PrajñÄpÄramitÄ literature. Possibly the earliest instance appears in the ''Perfection of Wisdom in 8,000 Lines'' (''Aá¹£á¹asÄhasrikÄ PrajñÄpÄramitÄ SÅ«tra''), believed by scholars to have been composed some time between the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE. Chapter 11 ("
Mara's Deeds") depicts a conversation between Buddha and the Bodhisattva Subhuti, where in Buddha admonishes those Bodhisattvas who disavow this sutra in favor of certain unnamed Buddhist sutras. In the following passage, the term ''hinayana'' is translated as "inferior vehicle" (emphasis added). "''Subhuti, do these Bodhisattvas appear to be very intelligent who, having obtained and met with the irreversible, the great vehicle, and then again abandon this, turn away from this, and prefer an ''inferior vehicle'' [...] this is seen as being done to these Bodhisattvas by
Mara.''"
Substitute terms for Hinayana
MahÄyÄna Buddhists sometimes refer to all forms of non-MahÄyÄna Buddhism, past and present, including the TheravÄda school, as members of the HÄ«nayÄna grouping. This term, which literally means "the inferior vehicle", tends to relate to those Buddhists who were deemed by Mahayanists to have rather narrow aspirations: instead of vowing (as the Mahayanists ideally did) to strive for the liberation both of themselves and all other sentient beings from
samsara, the "Hinayanists" were viewed as being excessively concerned with their own individual release into Nirvana. The term, "Hinayana", is now widely regarded as unhappily derogatory and inaccurate (at least in reference to the Theravada, but also to the other, already non-existent, schools).
In the Mahayana tradition (in certain sutras) the label Hinayana is used by the Buddha himself (e.g. in the
Lotus Sutra). The label of Hinayana also does accurately label a polemical category that existed in the minds of MahÄyÄna Buddhists. Some of the alternatives which were coined in order to find a less denigratory label have difficulties. Among the terms that have been used as substitutes for "HÄ«nayÄna" are the following:
★
Early Buddhism - refers to the variations within Buddhism (both
Pre-sectarian Buddhism as the
Early Buddhist schools) that were current before the
Mahayana movement emerged.
★
Early Buddhist schools – This term properly covers all the schools that existed before the emergence of the MahÄyÄna. The arising of the
Mahayana school of Buddhism (1st / 2nd century CE) went together with the adoption of new (previously not-existing)
sutras, and introduced new (or emphasized old but not very central) philosophies such as the
Bodhisattva and having the intention of liberating all sentient beings. Since this constituted a serious break with the previous traditions and customs that the earlier schools had in common, the Mahayana is seen as a 'reformist' or revolutionary movement, and not included in any lists of the early schools. Thus, there is a large correlation between the earlier schools and the label 'Hinayana'. Also the Mahayana itself never groups itself with the previously existing schools. Some of the later 'early schools' might have arisen (meaning: split off) from another, older, early school, and might have come into existence at about the same time as the Mahayana. However, these schools kept to the larger framework and attitude of the earlier schools.
★ Eighteen Schools (or Twenty Schools) – This term is historically oriented, based on the lists of the various
Early Buddhist schools. However, the list itself is numerically inexact since the exact number and the names of the schools differ between the various lists. These were the schools that the emerging Mahayana-movement was familiar with because they were existing at that time. Subsequently, these eighteen schools split up further into a larger number, and the Hinayana label could have also been applied to those later split-offs.
★ Southern Buddhism – This frequently used geographical designation is appropriately applied to the TheravÄda, whose centers in
Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia are located south of the centers of Mahayana (China, Tibet, Japan). In its early period, however, there was significant overlap between the geographical regions of Mahayana and the
early schools.
★ PÄli Buddhism – This term only applies to the TheravÄda, whose scriptures (the
PÄli canon) are in the
PÄli language. The other "HÄ«nayÄna" schools wrote either in
Sanskrit, in other
Prakrits (notably
GÄndhÄrÄ«) or in
Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, a mixed language with both Sanskrit and Prakrit elements.
★
ÅšrÄvakayÄna Buddhism – This term, referring to the "Å›rÄvakas" meaning disciples, followers or hearers. They who followed the Buddha and sought solely to eliminate suffering, thus culminating in
Arhatship. This term originates (like the term Hinayana) from within MahÄyÄna Buddhism, and thus faces some of the same objections as "HÄ«nayÄna", though it is less obviously derogatory. Savakayana is a bit different in that it does not refer to any actual school but purely to a tendency or intention to be found in the individual; one might be a member of a MahÄyÄna school, but be personally following a ÅšrÄvakayÄna path. Furthermore, it contrasts with "BodhisattvayÄna".
★
NikÄya Buddhism – This recently invented term was intended to cover the same ground as HÄ«nayÄna, referring to the 'nikÄyas' or "
schools" into which Buddhism was split by the beginning of the
Common Era. It may be interpreted as "Buddhism as taught in the '
NikÄyas'", the five primary divisions of the
Tipiá¹aka. However, this term is only used among the TheravÄda; other schools used the term '
Ä€gamas'.
★ TheravÄda – This term properly refers to only one school among many non-MahÄyÄna schools that once existed, many of which espoused philosophical notions contrary to those of the TheravÄdins. It would be altogether inaccurate to refer to such Buddhists as the
SarvÄstivÄdins as TheravÄdins. Some scholars, such as Dr.
Walpola Rahula, have pointed out that there was small contact between early MahÄyÄnists and TheravÄdins, and have suggested that the term "HÄ«nayÄna" was never intended to include the TheravÄda. Judging by the content of MahÄyÄna polemic, it seems certain that other sects of northern India were the primary targets of the "HÄ«nayÄna" critique.
'HÄ«nayÄna' as a pejorative
There remains an open and active debate regarding the issue of whether HÄ«nayÄna was coined to be pejorative or merely classificatory. The arguments for the term as being pejorative largely depends upon the etymological roots of the prefix 'HÄ«na':
HÄ«na- is defined as such: "inferior, less, low, base, mean, incomplete, deficient, wanting and so on." Since the meaning of 'hina' covers both a pejorative and non-pejorative meaning, it is difficult to come to a definite conclusion. The term could have been chosen because it provided both meanings.
Those who assert the idea of Hinayana as a 'pejorative' logically also are among those who subscribe the idea of an early (historical)
Mahayana schism, and who believe that there was a history of polemics (see also the book of
kathavatthu) between the early Mahayana and other early Buddhist schools. An argument used by those who consider Hinayana to be pejorative is based on the fact that if the term was to mean ''only'' 'Small or Lesser vehicle', then the term chosen would have been, "Culla" or in Sanskrit "Ksulla-ksudra" giving us Ksudrayana - though 'ksudra' has also had a history of being used in a somewhat pejorative manner.
Those who assert that the term was coined in a 'merely classificatory' manner (denying the histrical Mahayana schism and a history of polemics) believe that the usage of 'hīna-' as a prefix represents those "inferior": inferior because they do not lead to the attainment of Samyaksambuddha-hood.
We can find Mahayana Sutras and traditions which repeatedly admonish the trainee Bodhisattva not to criticise any of the Buddhist schools. The mere fact that there is such a strong admonishment against criticising the Hinayana indicates that is was either a common attitude, or that there was a degree of defensiveness within Mahayana regarding this issue. By the 3rd Century CE, in the ethics chapter of Asanga's Bodhisattvabhumi, we find an explicit injunction not to criticise or reject the HÄ«nayÄna texts or traditions, where Trainee Bodhisattvas are instructed not to "disparage the HÄ«nayÄna, or over-encourage others to learn Mahayana".
Candragomin wrote a very influential twenty verse summary of Asanga's Ethics, written or summarised as a set of vows to be taken by a trainee Bodhisattve. The 15th Verse (derived from Asanga's chapter on ethics) cites "rejecting the Sravakayana" as a root downfall. Candragomin's vows were adopted by the Indo-Tibetan Mahayana tradition via
Atisha, and are still used today by the
Gelugpa and
Kagyupa schools.
Quotes from Mahayana Sutras
In the early centuries CE, the Mahayana tradition was making efforts not to criticize or condemn the HÄ«nayÄna vehicles:
Lotus Sutra (Ch.14): ''A bodhisattva [...] does not hold other Buddhists in contempt, not 'even' those who follow the Hinayana path, nor does he cause them to have doubts or regrets by criticizing their way of practice or making discouraging remarks.''
However, the Buddha also emphasises that the Bodhisattva should only preach the Mahayana in response to queries, not the Hinayana:
"If there are objections or queries, one is not to answer them by resort to the Dharma of the Lesser Vehicle [''Hinayana''], but one is to explain only in terms of the Greater Vehicle [''Mahayana''], causing persons to gain knowledge of all modes" (''Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma'', tr. by Leon Hurvitz, Columbia UP, 1976, pp. 213-214).
The 18,000 verse perfection of wisdom sutra (an early
Madhyamaka Mahayana sutra) indicates a progression of training and an all-embracing approach: ''Bodhisattvas should practice all paths - whatever is a path of a sravaka, a pratyeka or a Buddha - and should know all paths.''
in the opening verses of the Vimalakirti Sutra: ''Reverence to all Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, Aryasravakas, and Pratyekabuddhas, in the past, the present, and the future'', and ''[...] Of bhikshus there were eight thousand, all arhats. They were free from impurities and afflictions, and all had attained self-mastery. Their minds were entirely liberated by perfect knowledge [...]''
However, it should be noted that the form given in the recently published Sanskrit edition of the ''Vimalakirti Sutra'' (Institute for Compreghensive Studies of Buddhism Taisho University 2004) is different. It merely has ''namaḥ sarva-buddha-bodhisattvebhyaḥ'', with no reference to anybody else. The salutation, as given above, derives from the Tibetan translation. Furthermore, it is not found in any of the three Chinese translations.
HÄ«nayÄna and TheravÄda
Concerning the distinctions between HÄ«nayÄna and TheravÄda, Dr. Rahula, a prominent buddhist teacher, says the following:
"''Between the 1st Century B.C. to the 1st Century A.D., the two terms MahÄyÄna and Hinayana appeared in the Saddharma Puṇá¸arÄ«ka SÅ«tra or the SÅ«tra of the Lotus of the Good Law.''
''About the 2nd Century A.D. MahÄyÄna became clearly defined. NÄgÄrjuna developed the MahÄyÄna philosophy of ÅšunyatÄ and proved that everything is Void in a small text called Madhyamika-kÄrikÄ. About the 4th Century, there were Asaá¹…ga and Vasubandhu who wrote enormous amount of works on MahÄyÄna. After the 1st Century AD., the MahÄyÄnists took a definite stand and only then the terms of MahÄyÄna and HÄ«nayÄna were introduced.''
''We must not confuse HÄ«nayÄna with TheravÄda because the terms are not synonymous. TheravÄda Buddhism went to Sri Lanka during the 3rd Century B.C. when there was no MahÄyÄna at all. HÄ«nayÄna sects developed in India and had an existence independent from the form of Buddhism existing in Sri Lanka. Today there is no HÄ«nayÄna sect in existence anywhere in the world. Therefore, in 1950 the
World Fellowship of Buddhists inaugurated in Colombo unanimously decided that the term HÄ«nayana should be dropped when referring to Buddhism existing today in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia, Laos, etc. This is the brief history of TheravÄda, MahayÄna and HÄ«nayÄna.''" -Dr. Rahula, ''Gems of Buddhist Wisdom''
Etymology
The Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary
The Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Oxford, 1899), gives a translation of 'HÄ«nayÄna' as:
''Proper Noun: "simpler or lesser vehicle. Name of the earliest system of Buddhist doctrine (opposite to
Mahayana; see
Yana)."
'HÄ«na' is defined in the same dictionary as follows:
:'hīná' mfn. left, abandoned, forsaken RV.
★ left behind, excluded or shut out from, lower or weaker than, inferior to (abl.) Mn. MBh. &c. [Page 1296, Column 3]
★ left out, wanting, omitted MBh.
★ defeated or worsted (in a lawsuit) YÄjñ.
★ deficient, defective, faulty, insufficient, short, incomplete, poor, little, low, vile, bad, base, mean ÅšBr. &c. &c
★ bereft or deprived of, free from, devoid or destitute of, without (instr., abl., loc., acc., or comp
★ 'prÄṇair hÄ«naḥ', 'bereft of breath or life'
★ mantrÄd or mantrato hâ—‹, 'devoid of sacred knowledge') Muṇá¸Up. KÄtyÅšr. Mn. MBh. &c
★ lost or strayed from (a caravan) PÄṇ. i, 4, 23 KÄÅ›.
★ brought low, broken down in circumstances ÅšrS.
★ m. a faulty or defective witness (of five kinds, viz. anya-vÄdin, kriyÄ-dveá¹£in, nôpasthÄyin, nir-uttara, ÄhÅ«sa-prapalâyin) YÄjñ. Sch.
★ subtraction (= = vyavakalana) MW.
★ Mesua Ferrea L.
★ (Ä), f. a female mouse (wá¹›. for dÄ«na) L.
★ (am), n. deficiency, want, absence (velÄ-hÄ«ne 'before the right time', unseasonably') VarBá¹›S. YÄjñ.''
Pali Text Society Dictionary
According to Pali Text Society Dictionary, the word ''hīna' is defined thus:
'HÄ«na':
#inferior, low; poor, miserable; vile, base, abject, contemptible, despicable
#deprived of, wanting, lacking
See also
★
Early Buddhist Schools
★
Buddhist schools
★
Nikaya Buddhism
★
Mahayana
★
Yana
★
Theravada
★
Buddhist polemics
Notes
Bibliography
★
Romila Thapar, ''Early India from the Origins to AD 1300'' Penguin, 2001
★
Tsongkhapa, ''The great treatise on the stages of the path to enlightenment'', Snowlion, 2000
★ Paul Williams, ''Mahayana Buddhism'', Routledge, 1989
★ Andrew Skilton, ''Concise history of Buddhism''. Windhorse, 1999
★ Donald Lopez, "The H Word", '', Fall 1995, pp84-85
★ R. S. Cohen, "Discontented Categories: Hinayana and Mahayana in Indian History", ''Journal of the American Academy of Religion'', 63(1):1-25, 1995
★ Ryukan Kimura, ''A Historical Study of the Terms Hinayana and Mahayana and the Origin of Mahayana Buddhism'', Indological Book Corp., 1978
External links
★
''Perfection of Wisdom in 8,000 Lines'' translated by Richard Babcock
★
"Theravada - Mahayana Buddhism" Dr. W. Rahula's article
★
"The myth of Hinayana" discusses the origins of the term Hinayana and why it should be avoided
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