:''This article is about the history of
Korea, up to the
division of Korea in the 1940s. See
History of North Korea and
History of South Korea for the post-World War II period. See also
Names of Korea.''
''Amitabha and Eight Great Bodhisattvas'', Goryeo scroll from the 1300s.
The 'history of Korea' stretches from
Lower Paleolithic times to the present.
[1] The earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 8000 BCE, and the
Neolithic period began before 6000 BCE, followed by that
Bronze Age around 2500 BCE. The
Gojoseon (Old Joseon) kingdom was founded in 2333 BCE, eventually stretching from the peninsula to much of Manchuria.
[2] By 3rd Century BCE, it disintegrated into many successor states.
In the early
Common Era, the
Three Kingdoms (
Goguryeo,
Silla, and
Baekje) conquered other successor states of Gojoseon and came to dominate the peninsula and much of Manchuria. During this period, Koreans played an important role as a transmitter of cultural advances, aiding the formation of early Japanese culture and politics. Census records from early Japan show that most Japanese aristocratic clans traced their lineage to the Korean peninsula. The current Japanese Emperor stated that "it is recorded in the
Chronicles of Japan that the mother of
Emperor Kammu was of the line of King
Muryeong of Baekje," and "I believe it was fortunate to see such culture and skills transmitted from Korea to Japan."
[1]
The Korean kingdoms competed with each other both economically and militarily. While Goguryeo and Baekje were more powerful for much of the era, defeating Chinese invasions several times, Silla's power gradually extended across Korea and it eventually established the first unified state to cover most of Korean peninsula by 676.
This period is often called
Unified Silla. Soon after the fall of Goguryeo however, former Goguryeo general
Dae Joyeong led a group of Koreans to eastern Manchuria and founded
Balhae (698 AD - 926 AD) as the successor to Goguryeo. After Balhae was defeated in 926, much of its people led by the Crown Prince was absorbed into
Goryeo.
Unified Silla itself fell apart in the late 9th century, giving way to the tumultuous
Later Three Kingdoms period (892-936), which ended with the establishment of the
Goryeo Dynasty. During the Goryeo period, laws were codified, a civil service system was introduced, and
Buddhism flourished. In 1238, the
Mongolian Empire invaded and after nearly thirty years of war, the two sides signed a peace treaty.
In 1392, the general
Yi Seong-gye established the
Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910) after a coup. King
Sejong the Great (1418-1450) promulgated
Hangul, the Korean alphabet, as an alternative to Chinese characters which were previously the only system of writing. This period saw various other cultural and technological advances. Between 1592-1598,
Japan invaded Korea, but was eventually repelled with the efforts by the Navy led by Admiral
Yi Sun-sin, resistance armies, and Chinese aid. In the 1620s and 1630s, Joseon suffered invasions by the
Manchu Qing Dynasty.
Beginning in the 1870s, Japan began to force Korea out of China's sphere of influence into its own. In 1895,
Empress Myeongseong of Korea was assassinated by Japanese agents.
[3] In 1905, Japan forced Korea to sign the ''
Eulsa Treaty'' making Korea a protectorate, and in 1910
annexed Korea, although neither is considered to be legally valid.
[4] Korean resistance to the Japanese occupation was manifested in the massive nonviolent
March 1st Movement of 1919. Thereafter the
Korean liberation movement, coordinated by the
Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in exile, was largely active in neighboring Manchuria, China and
Siberia.
With the defeat of Japan in 1945, the
United Nations developed plans for a trusteeship administration by the
Soviet Union and the
United States, but the plan was soon abandoned. In 1948, new governments were established, the democratic
South Korea and Communist
North Korea divided at the 38th parallel. The unresolved tensions of the division surfaced in the Korean war of 1950, when North Korea invaded South Korea.
Prehistory
Main articles: Prehistory of Korea
Archaeological evidence shows that
hominids first inhabited the
Korean Peninsula 700,000 years ago, though some North Koreans claim it may have been inhabited for 1,000,000 years.
[5] Tool-making artifacts from the
Palaeolithic period (700,000 BC to 40,000 BC) have been found in present-day
North Hamgyong,
South P'yongan,
Gyeonggi, and north and south
Chungcheong Provinces. The people were cave dwellers and built homes, using fire for cooking food and warmth. They hunted, gathered and fished with stone tools.
Jeulmun Pottery Period
Main articles: Jeulmun Pottery Period
The earliest known
Korean pottery dates back to around 8000 BC. or before, and evidence of
Mesolithic Pit-Comb Ware culture or Yungimun Pottery is found throughout the peninsula. An example of a Yungimun-era site is the Gosan-ni in
Jeju-do. Jeulmun or Comb-pattern Pottery is found after 7000 BC, and pottery with comb-patterns over the whole vessel is found concentrated at sites in West-central Korea between 3500-2000 BC, a time when a number of settlements such as Amsa-dong existed. Jeulmun pottery is similar to that of the
Russian Maritime Province,
Mongolia, and the
Amur and
Sungari River basins of
Manchuria.
[6]
Mumun Pottery Period
Main articles: Mumun Pottery Period
Archaeological evidence demonstrates that agricultural societies and the earliest forms of social-political complexity emerged in the
Mumun Pottery Period (c. 1500-300 BC). People in southern Korea adopted intensive dry-field and
paddy-field agriculture with a multitude of crops in the Early Mumun Period (1500-850 BC). The first societies led by big-men or chiefs emerged in the Middle Mumun (850-550 BC), and the first ostentatious elite burials can be traced to the Late Mumun (c. 550-300 BC). Bronze production began in the Middle Mumun and became increasingly important in Mumun ceremonial and political society after 700 BC The Mumun is the first time that villages rose, became large, and then fell: some important examples include
Songguk-ri,
Daepyeong, and
Igeum-dong. The increasing presence of long-distance trade, an increase in local conflicts, and the introduction of bronze and iron metallurgy are trends denoting the end of the Mumun around 300 BC.
Gojoseon
''Main articles:
Gojoseon,
Dangun''
According to legend, Korea's first kingdom,
Gojoseon (then called ''Joseon''), was founded by
Dangun in
2333 BC, in southern
Manchuria and northern
Korean peninsula.
[7] By 2000 BC, a new pottery culture is evidenced, with painted designs, in Manchuria and northern Korea.
Gija Joseon (controversy)
Although not widely accepted in Korea, some later
Chinese records indicate
Gija, an uncle of the last King of
Shang dynasty, migrated to Gojoseon around the 12th century BC. This is generally rejected by Korean scholars because of contradictory written and archeological evidence.
[8] The first historical documents to describe Gija, the
Bamboo Annals (竹書紀年) and Confucian Analects (論語), make no mention of Gija's supposed migration to Gojoseon.
[9] The artifact most representative of Gojoseon, the bronze violin-shaped dagger, differs significantly in form and composition from its Chinese counterpart. An archaeological site thought to be the tomb of Gija has been found in
Shandong province in China.
[10]
It is thought that when Han dynasty China was at war with Gojoseon, Chinese historians embellished Gija as the progenitor of Gojoseon. Some scholars consider
Gija Joseon a separate entity located at
Liaoning, coexisting with Gojoseon.
Bronze culture
The
Bronze Age is often held to have begun around 1500 – 1000 BCE in Korea, though recent archaeological evidence suggests it might have started as far back as 2500 BCE.
[11] Bronze daggers, mirrors, and weaponry have been found, as well as evidence of walled-town polities..
[11] Rice, red beans, soybeans and millet were cultivated, and rectangular pit-houses and increasingly larger
dolmen burial sites are found throughout the peninsula.
[3] Contemporaneous records suggest that Gojoseon transitioned from a feudal federation of walled cities into a centralised kingdom at least before the 4th century BCE.
[13]
Iron culture
Korean stone dagger and stone arrowhead, 7th-6th century BCE.
It is believed that by the third century BCE, iron culture was developing and the warring states of China pushed refugees eastward and south. Recently however, an iron mirror has been found in Songseok-ri Kangdong-gun Pyongyang in North Korea,
[14] that may have originated from 1200 BCE.
Around this time, a state called
Jin arose in the southern part of the Korean peninsula. Very little is known about Jin, but it established relations with Han China and exported artifacts to the
Yayoi of
Japan.
[15] A king of Gija Joseon may have fled to Jin after a coup by
Wiman. Jin later evolved into the
Samhan confederacies.
Later the
Han Dynasty defeated the
Wiman Joseon and set up
Four Commanderies of Han.
Decline and fall
The course of the decline and fall of Gojoseon is in dispute, depending on how historians view
Gija Joseon. The theory suggested by
Joseon Sangosa is that Gojoseon disintegrated by about 300 BCE as it gradually lost the control of its former fiefs. Many smaller states sprang from the former territory of Gojoseon such as
Buyeo,
Okjeo,
Dongye,
Guda-guk,
Galsa-guk,
Gaema-guk, and
Hangin-guk.
Goguryeo and
Baekje descended from Buyeo.
The
Three Kingdoms refer to
Goguryeo,
Baekje, and
Silla, although
Buyeo and the
Gaya confederacy existed into 5th and 6th centuries respectively.
Proto-Three Kingdoms
Main articles: Proto-Three Kingdoms of Korea
Gold buckle of the Proto-Three Kingdoms period
The Proto-Three Kingdoms period, sometimes called the Several States Period (열국시대), is the time before the rise of the
Three Kingdoms of Korea, which included
Goguryeo,
Silla, and
Baekje, and occurred after the fall of
Gojoseon. This time period consisted of numerous states that sprang up from the former territories of Gojoseon. Among these states, the largest and most influential were
Dongbuyeo and
Bukbuyeo.
Buyeo
Bukbuyeo
Main articles: Bukbuyeo
After the fall of
Gojoseon,
Hae Mosu, a person of Gojoseon descent, gathered an army of Gojoseon people at Ungshin Mountain in order to establish a kingdom that would reassert the glories of Gojoseon. In
2333 BC, Hae Mosu established
Buyeo, and was given the title of "Dangun," which was the title given to the rulers of Gojoseon. Hae Mosu and his descendants ruled over Buyeo through seven generations. Hae Mosu and his descendants constantly fought with
Wiman Joseon and its many neighbors. Buyeo slowly began to conquer these neighboring states, reunifying much of Gojoseon's former territories. Buyeo split in
86 BC, after the death of its 4th Dangun,
Hae Uru. With the death of Hae Uru, the throne of Buyeo was given to
Hae Buru, the brother of Hae Uru. Hae Buru was challenged by another contender to the throne,
Go Dumak, who was the descendant of
Goyeolga Dangun, who was the last ruler of Gojoseon. Hae Buru was defeated and fled to the east, where he reopened his kingdom, forming Dongbuyeo. After this event, Go Dumak combined the Dongmyeong kingdom with Buyeo, forming
Jolbon Buyeo. Go Dumak continued on as the 5th ruler of Buyeo, and passed the throne to his son,
Go Museo Dangun, upon his death in
60 BC. Go Museo ruled over Jolbon Buyeo for two years before dying in
38 BC. Go Museo Dangun had no sons, therefore, gave the throne to his son-in-law, who was
Jumong, the founder of
Goguryeo. Jolbon Buyeo later became the foundation for establishing Goguryeo, which was the northernmost and grew to become the most powerful of the
Three Kingdoms of Korea.
Dongbuyeo
Main articles: Dongbuyeo
Dongbuyeo was founded in
86 BC, by
King Hae Buru, who was the brother of
Buyeo's 4th Dangun. Hae Buru was succeeded by
Geumwa, who is mentioned in the Goguryeo Founding Myth. Geumwa's son,
Daeso, becomes the third and last king of Dongbuyeo. He fights against
King Daemusin, and is killed, bringing an end to Dongbuyeo.
Okjeo
Main articles: Okjeo
The Kingdom of Okjeo was a tribal state that was located in the northern
Korean Peninsula, and was established after the fall of Gojoseon. Okjeo had been a part of Gojoseon before its fall. It never became a fully-developed kingdom due to the intervention of its neighboring kingdoms. Okjeo became a tributary of Goguryeo, and was eventually annexed into Goguryeo by
Gwanggaeto Taewang in the 5th century.
Dongye
Main articles: Dongye
Dongye was another small kingdom that was situated in the northern
Korean Peninsula. Dongye bordered
Okjeo, and the two kingdoms faced the same fate of becoming tributaries of the growing empire of
Goguryeo. Dongye was also a former part of
Gojoseon before its fall.
Nangnang Joseon
Main articles: Nangnang nation
After the fall of
Gojoseon in
239 BC,
Choe Soong, a former Gojoseon official, established a "new Gojoseon" in Liaoning, calling it Nangnang-guk or "Nangnang nation." After a few years, the Nangnang Nation moved south into the
Korean peninsula near the
Taedong River, due to constant attacks by
Wiman Joseon. Though its existence is in high dispute, certain passages in
Samguk Sagi and several other ancient sources have provided proof. It coexisted with and paid tribute to
Buyeo. Though most of its rulers are unknown or unnamed in historical texts, the last ruler is named.
Choe Ri was the last ruler of Nangnang Joseon and was the father of Princess Nangnang, who was one of the main characters in a historical Korean love story. She and Prince Hodong of Goguryeo were lovers that stayed with each other despite the war between
Goguryeo and Nangnang Joseon. Nangnang Joseon was conquered by Goguryeo in
32 CE.
Samhan
Main articles: Samhan
Samhan refers to the three confederacies of
Mahan,
Jinhan, and
Byeonhan. The Samhan were located in the southern region of the
Korean Peninsula. These three confederacies eventually become the foundations, at which
Baekje,
Silla, and
Gaya were established. Mahan was the largest and consisted of 54 states. Byeonhan and Jinhan both consisted of 12 states, bringing a total of 78 states within the Samhan. The term "Samhan" is later used to describe the
Three Kingdoms of Korea.
Three Kingdoms period
Main articles: Three Kingdoms of Korea
Goguryeo
Main articles: Goguryeo
Goguryeo was founded the earliest and was the largest of the three. It was founded in 37 BC by
Jumong (posthumous name Dongmyeongseong).
King Taejo was centralization. and Goguryeo was the first Korean kingdom to adopt Buddhism as the state religion in 372, under
King Sosurim reign.
Goguryeo reached its zenith in the fifth century, when
King Gwanggaeto and his son,
King Jangsu expanded into almost all of Manchuria and part of inner Mongolia, and took the
Seoul region from Baekje. Gwanggaeto and Jangsu subdued Baekje and Silla during their times, bringing about a loose unification of Korea. Goguryeo defeated a massive Chinese invasion in the
Goguryeo-Sui War of 598-614, contributing to
Sui's fall, and continued to repel the
Tang dynasty.
[http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/history.htm#The%20Ko%20Choson] the central figure of a repulse was
Yeon Gaesomun and
Yang Manchun.
However, numerous wars exhausted Goguryeo and it fell into a weak state. After internal power struggles, it was conquered by the allied Silla-Tang forces in 668.
Baekje
Main articles: Baekje
Baekje's foundation by King Onjo in 18 BCE
[5], as stated in the
Samguk Sagi followed those of its neighbors and rivals, Goguryeo and Silla.
The
Sanguo Zhi mentions Baekje as a member of the
Mahan confederacy in the
Han River basin (near present-day
Seoul). It expanded into the southwest (
Chungcheong and
Jeolla provinces) of the peninsula and became a significant political and military power. In the process, Baekje came into fierce confrontation with Goguryeo and the Chinese commanderies in the vicinity of its territorial ambitions.
At its peak in the 4th century, it had absorbed all of the Mahan states and subjugated most of the western Korean peninsula (including the moder provinces of
Kyonggi,
Chungcheong, and
Jeolla, as well as part of
Hwanghae and
Kangwon) to a centralized government. Baekje acquired Chinese culture and technology through contacts with the
Southern Dynasties during the expansion of its territory.
Baekje played a fundamental role in transmitting cultural developments, such as
Chinese characters,
Buddhism, iron-making, advanced
pottery, and ceremonial burial into ancient
Japan.
[16] Other aspects of culture were also transmitted when the Baekje court retreated to Japan after Baekje was conquered. Baekje was defeated by a coalition of Silla and
Tang Dynasty forces in 660.
Silla
Main articles: Silla
Down-sized replica of the famous 80 meter tall pagoda at
Hwangnyongsa Temple which was destroyed by the Mongols.
According to legend, the kingdom
Silla began with the unification of six chiefdoms of the
Jinhan confederacy by
Bak Hyeokgeose in 57 BCE, in the southeastern area of Korea. Its territory included the present-day port city of
Busan, and Silla later emerged as a sea power responsible for destroying Japanese pirates, especially during the
Unified Silla period.
Silla artifacts, including unique gold metalwork, show influence from the northern nomadic steppes, with less Chinese influence than are shown by Goguryeo and Baekje. Silla expanded rapidly by occupying the
Han River basin and uniting the city states.
By the 2nd century, Silla existed as a large state, occupying and influencing nearby city states. Silla began to gain power when it annexed in 562 the
Gaya confederacy, between Baekje and Silla. Silla often faced pressure from Baekje and Japan, and at various times allied and warred with Baekje and Goguryeo.
In 660, King
Muyeol of Silla ordered his armies to attack
Baekje. General
Kim Yu-shin, aided by
Tang forces, conquered Baekje. In 661, Silla and Tang moved on
Goguryeo but were repelled. King
Munmu, son of Muyeol and nephew of General Kim, ordered his uncle to launch another campaign in 667 and Goguryeo fell in the following year.
Gaya
Main articles: Gaya Confederacy
Gaya pottery
was a confederacy of chiefdoms in the
Nakdong River valley of southern
Korea, growing out of the
Byeonhan confederacy of the
Samhan period. And one of the
Three Kingdoms of Korea. Gaya progress ironware culture. In 562, Gaya ultimately absorbed into
Silla.
North and South States
Post-668 Silla kingdom is often referred to as
Unified Silla, though the term North-South States, in reference to Balhae, is also used.
Unified Silla
''Main article:
Unified Silla''
Unified Silla lasted for 267 years until, under
King Gyeongsun, it was replaced by
Goryeo in 935.
[http://www.rootsinfo.co.kr/history/king08.html Wang Geon changed the name of dynasty to Goryeo ]
After the unification wars, the Tang Dynasty established territories in the former Goguryeo, and began to administer and establish communities in Baekje. Silla attacked the Chinese in Baekje and northern Korea in 671.
[http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/history.htm#The%20Ko%20Choson]
China then invaded Silla in 674 but led by General
Kim Yu-shin, Silla defeated the Chinese army in the north. Silla drove the Tang forces out of the peninsula by 676 to achieve unification of most of the Three Kingdoms.
Unified Silla was a time when Korean arts flourished dramatically and Buddhism became a large part of Silla culture. Buddhist monasteries such as the
Bulguksa are examples of advanced Korean architecture and Buddhist influence. State-sponsored art and architecture from this period include
Hwangnyongsa Temple,
Bunhwangsa Temple, and
Seokguram Grotto, a
World Heritage Site.
Silla began to experience political troubles in 780 when kings began to be assassinated by rebel leaders. This severely weakened Silla and soon thereafter, descendants of the former Baekje established Later Baekje. In the north, rebels revived Goguryeo, beginning the
Later Three Kingdoms period.
[http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/history.htm#The%20Ko%20Choson]
Balhae
''Main articles:
Balhae''
Balhae was founded in the northern part of former lands of Goguryeo by
Dae Joyeong, a former Goguryeo general. Balhae controlled the northernmost areas of the Korean Peninsula, much of Manchuria (though it didn't occupy Liaodong peninsula for much of history), and expanded into present-day
Russian Maritime Province. Balhae styled itself as Goguryeo's
successor state. It also adapted from the Tang Empire, for example in the layout of its capitals.
In a time of relative peace and stability in the region, Balhae culture flourished, especially during the long reign of the third
Emperor Mun (r. 737-793). Like Silla culture, the culture of Balhae was strongly influenced by Buddhism. However, Balhae was severely weakened by the tenth century, and the
Khitan Liao Dynasty conquered Balhae in 926.
No historical records from Balhae have survived, and the Liao left no histories of Balhae. Goryeo (see below) absorbed some Balhae territory and received Balhae refugees, including the crown prince and the royal family, but compiled no known histories of Balhae either. The
Samguk Sagi ("History of the Three Kingdoms"), for instance, includes passages on Balhae, but does not include a dynastic history of Balhae. The eighteenth century
Joseon dynasty historian
Yu Deukgong advocated the proper study of Balhae as part of Korean history, and coined the term "North and South States Period" to refer to this era.
Later Three Kingdoms
Main articles: Later Three Kingdoms
The Later Three Kingdoms (892 - 936) consisted of
Silla,
Hubaekje ("Later
Baekje"), and
Taebong (also known as Hugoguryeo, "Later
Goguryeo"). The latter two, established as
Unified Silla declined in power, were viewed as heirs to the earlier
Three Kingdoms of Korea.
Taebong (Later Goguryeo) was originally led by Gung Ye, a Buddhist monk who founded Later Goguryeo. The unpopular Gung Ye was deposed by
Wang Geon (877-943) in 918, when Gung Ye killed his wife and son.
[http://www.rootsinfo.co.kr/history/king08.html Wang Geon changed the name of dynasty to Goryeo] Wang Geon was popular with his people, and he decided to unite the entire peninsula under one government. He attacked Later Baekje in 934 and received the surrender of Silla in the following year. In 936, Goryeo conquered Later Baekje.
Goryeo
Main articles: Goryeo
Goryeo was founded in 918 and by 936, replaced Silla as the ruling dynasty of Korea. ("Goryeo" is a short form of "Goguryeo" and the source of the English name "Korea.") The dynasty lasted until 1392. During this period laws were codified, and a civil service system was introduced.
Buddhism flourished, and spread throughout the peninsula. The development of
celadon industry flourished in 12th and 13th century. The publication of
Tripitaka Koreana, and world's first metal printing technology in 13th century, attests to Goryeo's cultural achievements.
In 1231 the
Mongols began its
campaigns against Korea and after 25 years of struggle, the royal family relented by signing a treaty with the Mongols. For the following 80 years Goryeo survived, but under the interference of the Mongols. In the 1340s, the Mongol Empire declined rapidly due to internal struggles. King
Gongmin was free at last to reform a Goryeo government. Gongmin had various problems that needed to be dealt with, which included the removal of pro-Mongol aristocrats and military officials, the question of land holding, and quelling the growing animosity between the Buddhists and Confucian scholars.
Another problem was that
"Japanese" pirates were now organizing deep raids into the country. General
Lee Seonggye distinguished himself by repelling the pirates in a series of successful engagements. The Goryeo dynasty would last until 1392, when Lee Seonggye, who had heavy support among aristocracy, would easily take power in a coup.
Joseon
Main articles: Joseon Dynasty
In 1392 a Korean general,
Lee Seonggye, was sent to China to campaign against the
Ming Dynasty, but instead he returned to overthrow the Goryeo king and establish a new dynasty. He named it the
Joseon Dynasty in honor of the previous Joseon before (Gojoseon is the first Joseon. "Go" was added to distinguish between the two). King Taejo moved the capital to
Hanseong (formerly
Hanyang; modern-day
Seoul) and built the
Gyeongbokgung palace. In 1394 he adopted
Confucianism as the country's official religion, resulting in much loss of power and wealth by the Buddhists. Joseon experienced advances in science and culture; most notably, the
Hangul alphabet was invented by
King Sejong in 1443. The Joseon Dynasty is believed to have been the longest-lived actively ruling dynasty in East Asia during the last millennium.
Economy
Joseon maintained a stable economy during peaceful times. After the Joseon court was established and completed, the economy began to prosper as well. Early during the Joseon Dynasty, the economy was stable, especially during
King Sejong's rule. However, the economy suffered after the Japanese invasions 1592-1598 and internal court corruption, bribery, and heavy tax, strained the Korean economy.
Social hierarchy
The Joseon formed a very strict class system that greatly affected the economy. The king was at the top of the system, while the
yangbans and government officials and generals were below him. Yangbans were influential scholars during the Joseon Dynasty. The middle class consisted of a few merchants and craftsmen. The bulk of the economy was in lower class of the farmers and the lowest class of the slaves who did not pay any taxes to the government. At one point, slaves comprised 30% of the population.
Foreign invasions
Korean Embassy to Japan, 1655, attributed to Kano Toun Yasunobu.
British Museum.
Joseon dealt with a pair of
Japanese invasions from 1592 to 1598 (''Imjin War''). This conflict brought prominence to Admiral
Yi Sun-sin, and the use of
turtle ships and
hwachas by the Korean military. Subsequently, there were invasions from
Manchuria in 1627 (see the
First Manchu invasion of Korea) and again in 1636 (see the
Second Manchu invasion of Korea), after which the Joseon dynasty recognized the legitimacy of the
Qing Empire. There was trade with the Japanese at
Busan, and emissaries were sent to
Edo in Japan. Europeans were not permitted to trade at Korean ports until the 1880s.
19th century
During the 19th century, Korea tried to control foreign influence by closing the borders to all nations but China. In 1853 the
USS South America, an American gunboat, visited
Busan for 10 days and had amiable contact with local Korean officials. Several Americans who were shipwrecked on Korea in 1855 and 1865 were also treated well and sent to China for repatriation. The Joseon court which ruled Korea, was well aware of the foreign invasions and treaties involving Qing China, as well as the
Opium Wars, and followed a cautious policy of slow exchange with the west. In 1866 the
General Sherman Incident put Korea and the
United States on a collision course.
In 1871, the United States confronted Korea militarily, and retreated, in what the Koreans call the
Sinmiyangyo. By 1876, a rapidly modernizing
Japan forced Korea to open its ports and successfully challenged the Qing Empire in the
Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895). In 1895, the Japanese murdered
Empress Myeongseong,
[3] who had sought Russian help, and the Russians were forced to retreat from Korea.
In 1897, Joseon was renamed ''Daehan Jeguk'' (
Korean Empire), and King Gojong became
Emperor Gojong. A period of Russian influence followed, until Japan defeated Russia in the
Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). Korea effectively became a
protectorate of Japan on
25 July 1907, the 1905 Protectorate Treaty having been promulgated without Emperor Gojong's required seal.
Japanese occupation
Main articles: Korea under Japanese rule
In 1910
Japan effectively annexed
Korea by the
Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty. While the legality of the treaty is still asserted by Japan, it is generally not accepted in Korea because it was not signed by the Emperor of Korea as required and violated international convention on external pressures regarding treaties. Korea was controlled by
Japan under a so-called
Governor-General of Korea until Japan's unconditional surrender to the Allied Forces, on
15 August 1945, with ''de jure'' sovereignty deemed to have passed from Joseon Dynasty to the
Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea.
European-styled
transport and
communication networks were established across the nation. This facilitated Japanese exploitation, but modernization had little if any effect on the Korean people, but was mainly being used to serve Japanese trade needs, and their tight centralized controls. The Japanese removed the
Joseon hierarchy, destroyed the
Korean Palace, and revamped Korea's taxation system to evict tenant farmers, export Korean rice crops to Japan which provoked Korean famines; and brought in a punitive series of measures which included murdering those who refused to pay taxes in the provinces; forced slavery in roadworks, mines, and first sweat shop factories in Korea. Then Japan further promoted slavery of Koreans in Japan and its occupied territories by transporting forced slaves to these areas.
After the Korean Emperor Gojong died in January 1919, with a rumor of poisoning, liberation rallies against Japanese invaders took place nationwide on 1 March 1919 (the
March 1st (''Samil'') Movement). This movement was suppressed by force and about 7,000 were killed by Japanese soldiers and police.
[18] An estimated 2 million people took part in peaceful, pro-liberation rallies. (The Japanese record claims less than half million.) Many Korean Christians, including an entire village of
Jeamri, were crucified or burnt alive in churches as they fought for
Korean liberation. This movement was partly inspired by United States president
Woodrow Wilson's speech of 1919, declaring support for right of self determination and an end to colonial rule for Europeans. No comment was made by Wilson on Korean liberation, perhaps as a pro-Japan faction in the USA sought trade inroads into China through the Korean peninsula.
The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was established in
Shanghai, China, in an aftermath of March 1st Movement, which coordinated the Liberation effort and resistance against Japanese control. Some of the achievements of the Provisional Government include the
Battle of Chingshanli of 1920 and the ambush of Japanese Military Leadership in China in 1932. The Provisional Government is considered to be the de jure government of the Korean people between the period 1919 to 1948, and its legitimacy is enshrined in the preamble to the
constitution of the
South Korea.
Continued
anti-Japanese uprisings, such as the nationwide uprising of students in November 1929, led to the strengthening of military rule in 1931. After the outbreaks of the
Sino-Japanese War in 1937 and
World War II Japan attempted to exterminate Korea as a nation. Worship at Japanese
Shinto shrines was made compulsory. The school curriculum was radically modified to eliminate teaching in the Korean language and history within Korea. The continuance of
Korean culture itself began to be illegal. Korean culture and economy suffered heavy losses. The Korean language was banned and Koreans were forced to adopt Japanese names.
[19] Numerous Korean cultural artifacts were destroyed or taken to Japan.
[20] To this day, valuable Korean artifacts can often be found in Japanese museums or among private collectors. Newspapers were prohibited from publishing in Korean and the study of Korean history was banned at university with Korean textbooks burnt, destroyed, or made illegal which
Editing Agency of Korean History oversaw. According to an investigation by the South Korean government, 75,311 cultural assets were taken from Korea.
Japan has 34,369, The
United States has 17,803.
[21]
Some
Koreans left the
Korean peninsula to
Manchuria and
Primorsky Krai. Koreans in Manchuria formed resistance groups known as
Dongnipgun (Liberation Army) which would travel in and out of the Korean-Chinese boundary, fighting
guerrilla warfare with the Japanese forces. These guerilla armies would come together in 1940s as
Korean Liberation Army and the Liberation Army took part in allied action in China and parts of South East Asia. Tens of thousands of Koreans also joined the
Peoples Liberation Army and the
National Revolutionary Army.
During
World War II, Koreans were forced to support the Japanese war effort. Tens of thousands of men
[22] were conscripted into Japan's military. Around 200,000 girls and women, mostly from Korea and China, were conscripted as sex slaves, euphemistically called "
comfort women".
[23]
The division of Korea
Main articles: Division of Korea
Soldiers climbing a sea wall in
Incheon
The unconditional surrender of Japan, the earlier collapse of
Nazi Germany, combined with fundamental shifts in global politics and ideology, led to the division of Korea into two occupation zones effectively starting on
September 8,
1945, with the
United States administering the southern half of the peninsula and the
Soviet Union taking over the area north of the
38th parallel. The Provisional Government was ignored, mainly due to American misconception that it was too communist-aligned. This division was meant to be temporary and was first intended to return a unified Korea back to its people until the United States,
United Kingdom,
Soviet Union, and
Republic of China could arrange a trusteeship administration.
At the
Cairo Conference on
22 November 1943, it was agreed that Korea would be free "in due course Korea shall become free and independent”; at a later meeting in
Yalta in February 1945, it was agreed to establish a four-power trusteeship over Korea. On
August 9 1945,
Soviet tanks entered northern
Korea from
Siberia, meeting little to no resistance. Japan surrendered to the Allied Forces on
15 August 1945.
In December 1945, a conference convened in
Moscow to discuss the future of Korea. A 5-year trusteeship was discussed, and a joint Soviet-American commission was established. The commission met intermittently in
Seoul but deadlocked over the issue of establishing a national government. In September 1947, with no solution in sight, the
United States submitted the Korean question to the
UN General Assembly.
Initial hopes for a
unified, independent Korea quickly evaporated as the politics of the
Cold War and opposition to the trusteeship plan from Korean anti-communists resulted in the 1948 establishment of two separate nations with diametrically opposed political, economic, and social systems. On
December 12 1948, by its resolution 195
[24] in the Third General Assembly, the
United Nations recognised the
Republic of Korea as the sole legal government of Korea. In June 1950 the
Korean War broke out when North Korea breached the 38th parallel line to invade the South, ending any hope of a peaceful reunification for the time being.
''See
History of North Korea and
History of South Korea for the post-war period.''
Notes
1. Byeon (1999), p. 27. Byeon explains that the lower layers of Seokjangni and other sites have been dated to 600,000-500,000 BC, and that the discovery of yet older layers at a site in Damyang County have led to the hypothesis that hominid habitation of Korea began around 700,000 BCE.
2. Go-Choson
3. Murder of Empress Myeongseong
4. Forced Annexation
5. 한국의 선사시대에 대한 북한 고고학계의 동향과 시각-구석기시대와 신석기시대를 중심으로-Trend and Perspective of Korean Prehistoric Study in North Korea, , Chang-Gyun, Han, 한국고대사연구, 2002 In addition, the Korean Central News Agency, the official News Agency of North Korea claims that Korea is ''one of the several cradles of humankind in the world'' (13/04/2004). Typical of relics that allegedly dates from the ''beginning period of humankind'' was discovered in a grotto in Huku-ri of Sangwon County, Pyongyang.[2]
6. http://www.bartleby.com/67/160.html
7. http://www.rootsinfo.co.kr/history/king01.html
8. dbpia.co.kr
9. http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=29466
10. infobase.gov.cn
11. http://www.artsmia.org/art-of-asia/history/korea-neolithic-bronze-age.cfm
12. http://www.artsmia.org/art-of-asia/history/korea-neolithic-bronze-age.cfm
13. http://www.kimsoft.com/2004/go-chosun.htm
14. Editorial of Buksori by Prof. Park Seonhee[4]
15. "Yayoi Period History Summary," BookRags.com; Jared Diamond, "Japanese Roots," ''Discover'' 19:6 (June 1998); Thayer Watkins, "The Genetic Origins of the Japanese"
16. "Korean Buddhism Basis of Japanese Buddhism," ''Seoul Times'', June 18, 2006; "Buddhist Art of Korea & Japan," Asia Society Museum; "Kanji," JapanGuide.com; "Pottery," MSN Encarta; "History of Japan," JapanVisitor.com.
17. Murder of Empress Myeongseong
18. March 1st Movement
19. 宮田 節子 [Miyata, Setsuko]. "創氏改名" [Creating Surnames and Changing Given Names}, 明石書店 [Akashi-shoten], 1992, al. ISBN 4-7503-0406-9
20. Newsweek.com. Who rightfully owns Korean artifacts looted by Japan?
21. [6]
22. 山脇 啓造 Yamawaki, Keizo. 近代日本と外国人労働者―1890年代後半と1920年代前半における中国人・朝鮮人労働者問題 ''Modern Japan and Foreign Laborers: Chinese and Korean Laborers in the late 1890s and early 1920s'', 明石書店 Akashi-shoten, 1994, et al. ISBN 4750305685
23. [7] [8] [9] Comfort-Women.org
24. http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/043/66/IMG/NR004366.pdf?OpenElement
References
★
韓國史通論 (Hanguksa tongnon) (Outline of Korean history), 4th ed., Byeon Tae-seop (변태섭), , , , 1999, ISBN 89-445-9101-6
★ Yang, S.C. (1999). ''The North and South Korean political systems: A comparative analysis.'' (Rev. Ed.). Seoul: Hollym. ISBN 1-56591-105-9
See also
★
List of Korea-related topics
★
Prehistory of Korea
★
List of Korean Kings
★
Military history of Korea
External links
★ http://www.koreaorbit.com/history-of-korea/history-of-korea-dynasties.html
★ http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/history.htm#The%20Ko%20Choson
★ http://www.rootsinfo.co.kr/history/king01.html -in Korean
★
Archival Heritage of Korea
★
Kyujanggak Achieve(big pdfs of many history classics of Korea in their original written Classical Chinese)
.jpg)
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