The recorded 'History of Sri Lanka' boasts of 25 chronicled centuries. It begins in the 6th century BC, with North Indian settlers and developes a unique
hydraulic civilization, enormous pyramid-like
Stupa architecture, within an exceptional culture nourished by
Buddhism. It is forced to deal with South Indian invasions (10th century) and European expansions (16th century).
Historical chronicles are found in stone writings ('sel lipi'), leaf writings ('Hela Atuva') and also in great Indian chronicles as
Mahabharata and the
Ramayana. The main historical written evidence is the
Mahavamsa, also including
Dipavamsa &
Chulavamsa, their Burmese versions, as well as the parallel Indian records.
The island presently known as 'Sri Lanka' was originally known as 'Sinhale' or 'Heladiva', Accoding to accounts based on tradition, the ''Hela'' inhabitants comprised of
naga,
yaksha,
deva &
raksha and possibly other peoples.
Prehistory
Main articles: Prehistory of Sri Lanka
The island is estimated to have been colonised by the
Balangoda people (named after the area where their remains were discovered) about 34,000 years ago. They have been identified as a group of
Mesolithic hunter gatherers who lived in caves. Several of these caves including the well known
Batadombalena and the
Fa-Hien Rock cave) have yielded many artefacts that points to them being the first inhabitants of the island.
The Balangoda people appear to have been responsible for creating
Horton Plains, in the central hills, by burning the trees in order to catch game. However, discovery of
Oats and
Barley on the plains dating to about 15,000 BC suggest they may have engaged in
agriculture.
[1]
Several minute granite tools of about 4 centimeters in length, earthenware and remnants of charred timber, and clay burial pots that date back to the Stone Age
Mesolithic Man who lived 8000 years ago have been discovered during recent excavations around a cave at Varana Raja Maha vihara & also in Kalatuwawa area.
Cinnamon, which is native to Sri Lanka, was in use in
Ancient Egypt in about
1500 BC, suggesting that there were trading links with the island. It is possible that Biblical
Tarshish was located on the island (
James Emerson Tennent identified it with
Galle).
[2]
A large
settlement appears to have been founded before 900 BC at the site of
Anuradhapura and signs of an
Iron Age culture have also been found. The size of the settlement was about 15 hectares at that date, but it expanded to 50 ha, to 'town' size within a couple of centuries. A similar site has been discovered at Aligala in
Sigiriya.
[3]
It is suspected that the hunter gatherer people known as the
Wanniyala-Aetto or
Veddas, who still live in the North-Eastern parts of the island, are relatively direct descendants of the first inhabitants.
The
Ramayana epic, composed possibly between the 2nd and 4th centuries BC, states that
Lanka was created by the divine sculptor
Vishwakarma for
Kubera, the lord of wealth.
[1] Ravana, the younger brother of Kubera, usurped his throne after defeating him in a battle. Ramayana recounts how
Rama invaded the island through the Mannar causeway with the help of
Hanuman, the king of a Vanara (monkey) Army, to save his abducted wife
Sita from
Ravana, the King of Sri Lanka.
The earliest chronicles the
Dipavamsa and
Mahavamsa say that, before the migration of the
Indo-Aryans, tribes of
Yakkhas (demons) and
Nagas (cobras) inhabited the island. These names might refer to the tribal totems of the people living in the island.
Pottery has been found at
Anuradhapura, bearing
Brahmi script and non-Brahmi writing, dating back to
600 BC, suggesting that the art of writing may have been re-introduced to the subcontinent via
Sri Lanka.
Legendary and early history (500 - 250 BC)
Pali Chronicles and the arrival of Vijaya
The Pali chronicles, i.e., the
Dipavamsa,
Mahavamsa[2]
and the
Chulavamsa as well as a large collection of stone inscriptions,
[3] the Indian Epigraphical
records, the Burmese versions of the chronicles etc., provide an exceptional record for the history of Sri Lanka from about the 6th century B.C. The Mahavamsa, written circa 5th century A. D. by the monk Nagasena, using the Deepavmsa, the Attakatha and other written sources available to him, collates well with the Indian history of the period, with King
Asoka's reign actually discoverd through the Mahavamsa. The period prior to Asoka's coronoation (given in the Mahavamsa as 218 yeas after the Buddha's death) tends to be part legend. Thus the history begins with the arrival of
Vijaya and his 700 followers. Vijaya, is a Bengali(?) prince born by a mythical union between a lion and a human princess. The historian contrives the chronology to claim that Vijaya landed on the same day as the death of the Buddha (See Geiger's preface to Mahavamsa), giving added significance to Vijaya's arrival. The story of Vijaya and Kuveni (the local reigning queen) is remniscent of Greek legend, and may have a common source of Indo-European folk lore
[4]. Vijaya landed near Mahathitha (Manthota or Mannar
[5]), and, according to the Mahavamsa, named the Island "Thambaparni" ('copper-colored palms), a name which entered into
Ptolomy's map of the ancient world. Mahathitha was an ancient port
[6], linking the Indian coast and the Persian gulf with Sri Lanka, and frequented by sea-faring people in pre-Vijayan times.
The descendents of Vijaya are known as the
Sinhala. Although the genetic indicators and
haplotypes of the region show that the people are a thoroughly inter-mixed group, the issue of migratory patterns, and their relation to those in the Indian sub-continent are endlessly debated.
Saka-Murunda
Ancient
epigraphic inscriptions found at
Anuradhapura and some other places in Sri Lanka attest
''Muridi'' (Muruda = Murunda),
[7] ''Meraya'' (
Maurya? or else ''the inhabitants from
Meru in
Hindukush''?) etc.
Dravidians
The pressure of migrations from the north and the rise of Dravidian power lead to invasions of the Island, especially in later times. Small settlements near present-day Kathirveli and Pomparippu (Sinhala: ''Ranparittha'') are described as mere "isolated settlements" by Dr. Karthigesu Indrapala
[8].
Sena and Guttaka were the first Tamil rulers (2nd century BC). They left no evidence except for the allusion in the Mahavamsa.
The intermingling of Tamil and Sinhala people, especially after the 12th century is evidenced by the tamilization of Sinhala toponyms, see
Place names in Sri Lanka.
There is also a reference to
Dravidian community ''Dameda'' (Damila or
Tamil), and another reference to ''Jhavaka'' (?) and ''Mileka'' (=
Mlechha).
Kambojas
Of these several ethnic groups, the Kaboja (or Kamboja, Kambodjin) find mention in seven or eight ancient inscriptions, whereas term Daemeda is referenced four times, Mileka occurs twice and the Muridi, Meraya and Jhavaka occur only once.
[9] The Sihalavatthu, a
Pali text of about the fourth century, also attests a group of people called the
Kambojas living in
Rohana. The third story of this text, called ''Metteyya-vatthu'', reveals that the Elder named Maleyya was residing in ''Kamboja-gama'', in the province (
Janapada) of Rohana on the
Island of Tambapanni (Sri Lanka).
[10] Further, there is an ancient evidence from
Mahavamsa that the
Yonas or
Yavanas (
Greeks), the next door neighbors of the Kambojas in the north-west, had also their settlement in ''Pandukabhaya'' in Anuradhapura
[11]
The ancient inscriptions reveal that the Kambojas were actively involved in trade since there is reference to one 'Grand Trade Guild of the Kambojas' (''Kabojhiya-mahapugiyana'') and one 'Sangha of the Kambojas' (''Gota-Kabojhi(ya]na'') in Anuradhapura.
[12] Scholars have dated these epigraphic inscriptions to at least third century BCE (or probably earlier). This may imply that the
Aryan speakers of Sri Lankan population may have materially descended from the north-western Kambojas and partly from the Saka (Murinda) and the Yavana colonists.
Feudal Sri Lanka (250 BC-1600 AD)
Anuradhapura dynasty
Sanghamitta arriving in Sri Lanka with the Holy Bodhi Tree
DEVANAMPIYA TISSA (250-210 BC).
Mauriya clan. His links with Emperor
Asoka led to the introduction of Buddhism by
Mahinda (son or brother of Asoka) in 247? BC.
Sangamitta, (sister of Mahinda) brought a
Bodhi sapling via Jambukola(Sambiliturei). This king's reign was crucial to
Theravada Buddhism, and for Sri Lanka.
ELARA 205-161 BC, 'Famous Chola king', ruled "Pihiti Rata", i.e., Sri Lanka north of the
mahaweli, after killing King Asela. During
Elara's time, KelaniTissa was king of Maya Rata (south-west) and KavanTissa was a 'regional king' of Ruhuna (South-east). Kavantissa built Tissa Maha Vihara, Dighavapi Tank and many shrines in Seruvila. DUTU GEMUNU (GAMINI) 161-137 BC – Eldest son of King Kavan Tissa, defeated Elara in an epic battle (15-year war), described in the Mahavamsa.
Dutugamunu is depicted as a Sinhala "Asoka". The
Ruwanwelisaya, built by this king is a dagaba of pyramid-like proportions. It was the an engineering marvel, being the tallest structure in its time. VALAGAMBAHU I 103 BC, hid in the south during
'Five Tamil Chiefs': PULAHATHA deposed by BAHIYA, deposed by PANAYAMARA, deposed by PILAYAMARA, murdered by DATHIYA 88 BC – deposed by Valagambahu, 'ending Tamil rule'. VALAGAMBAHU I 89-77 BC – restored the Dutugamunu dynasty. The Mahavihara
Theravada -Abhayagiri( pro-
Mahayana) doctrinal disputes arose at this time. The
Tripitaka was written in
Pali at Aluvihara, Matale. CHORA NAGA (Mahanaga) 63-51 BC; poisoned by his consort Anula.
Queen Anula 48-44 BC – Widow of Chora Naga and Kuda Tissa, ''first Queen of Lanka''. She had many lovers who were poisoned by her. She was finally killed by: KUTTAKANNA TISSA. VASABHA 67-111 AD –
Vallipuram gold plate; he fortified Anuradhapura and built eleven tanks; many edicts. GAJABAHU I 114-136 – invaded the Chola kingdom and brought back captives. He recovered the
tooth relic of the Buddha.
MAHASENA 274-301 AD – The
Theravada (Maha Vihara) was persecuted and
Mahayana surfaced. Later the King returned to the Maha Vihara. 'Pandu' 429 AD - 'first of seven Pandiyan rulers', ending with Pithya, 455; DHATUSENA 455-473 AD, his uncle, 'Mahanama' wrote the Mahavamsa, he built "Kalavaeva". His son KASYAPA 470-488 AD, built the famous
sigiriya rock palace. Some 700 rock graffiti give a glimpse of ancient Sinhala.
Lambakanna
MANAVAMMA 684-718 AD – seized the throne with
Pallava help. Manavamma introduced Pallava patronage for three centuries.
By the 9th century, with the Pandyan ascendancy in southern India, Anuradhapura was sacked. However, the Sinhalese invaded Pandya using a rival prince, and
Madurai itself was sacked. MAHINDA V 982-1029 AD – He was the last Sinhala monarch of Anuradhapura. He fled to Ruhuna, where in 1007, the Chola took him prisoner and died in India.
Chola empire
Main articles: Chola empire
The 'Chola kings' of South india, sons of Rajendra I, controlled the "Rajarata", while the Sinhala kings fled to Rohana (south-east).
Polonnaruwa rule
VIJAYABAHU I 1055-1110 AD, recaptured the whole Island, and established
Polonnaruwa as the new capital. King Vijaya Bahu married from the Kalinga (Orissa) Royal Family a second queen, and had a son Vikrama Bahu and a daughter Ratnavali. His sister, Mitta, married a Pandya Prince who had three sons, the eldest being Manabharana. He married Ratnavali. Their son was PARAKRAMA BAHU I 1153-1186 AD – Grandson of Vijaya Bahu I, Prince of Sinhala-Pandyan-Kalinga descent, son of Manabharana and Vijaya Bahu’s sister, Mitta. He was a very powerful king, noted for his engineering
[13], naval power, art, culture, many Sinhala inscriptions, and even a Tamil edict in Uruthota (Kayts). The
Chulavamsa was written by 'Dharmakirthi', updating the Mahavamsa to include Parakramabahu. It was a great age since the epic Anradhapura period.
Dambadeniya and Arya Chakaravarthi kingdoms
'MAGHA (Kalinga)' 1215-1232 AD – A prince of Kalinga (i.e, non-Tamil) invaded the Island using 'Tamil and Kerala mercenaries', via Madhupathota (Illupiakadavai). Magha ransacked the "Raja rata" - i.e., north of the Mahaveli. The country never recovered from these invasions where irrigation works were destroyed, and mosquitoes developed. The capital was moved to Dambadeniya, Yaphuva, Gampola, Kotte and to
Kandy.
During this time 'Jaffna emerged as a sub-kingdom', usually subject to either the prevailing Chola, Magha or Pandyan power, or the Sinhala king. Being local rulers, they left no edicts, inscriptions, or other legacy
[14]. However, a chronology is available from Pararajasekeram (1478), to Sankili II (1620). Several inscriptions of the Sinhla kings, and the writings of De Queyroz and Baldeus confirm that the Jaffna rulers were nominally subservient to the Sinhala kings
[15] [16]. Sankili's rule was terminated by the portuguese in 1620.
We may end this section covering 20 centuries, with King PARAKRAMA BAHU VI 1411-1466 AD, who was a great patron of the arts and supported many poets (Thotagamuve Rahula) and writers. His capital was
Kotte, the modern "
Jayawardana Pura". He brought the whole country under his control, but his successors were far less successful, having to face European invasions described below.
Colonial era (1517-1948)
Portuguese era
Main articles: Portuguese Ceylon
The first Europeans to visit Sri Lanka in modern times were the
Portuguese:
Francisco de Almeida arrived in 1505, finding the island divided into seven warring kingdoms and unable to fend off intruders. The Portuguese founded a fort at the Muslim port city of
Colombo in 1517 and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas. In 1592 the Sinhalese moved their capital to the inland city of
Kandy, a location more secure against attack from invaders. Intermittent warfare continued through the 16th century.
Many lowland Sinhalese converted to
Christianity, but the Buddhist majority disliked Portuguese occupation and its influences and welcomed any power who might rescue them. In 1602, therefore, when the
Dutch captain
Joris Spilberg landed, the king at Kandy appealed to him for help.
Dutch era
Main articles: Dutch Ceylon
It was in 1638 that the Dutch attacked in earnest, and not until 1656 that Colombo fell. By 1660 the Dutch controlled the whole island except the kingdom of Kandy. The Dutch persecuted the Catholics but left the Buddhists, Hindus and Moslems alone. However they taxed the people far more heavily than the Portuguese had done. A mixed Dutch-Sinhalese people known as
Burgher peoples are the legacy of Dutch rule.
In 1659, the British sea captain
Robert Knox landed by chance on Sir Lanka and was captured by the king of Kandy. He escaped 19 years later and wrote an account of his stay. This helped to bring the island to the attention of the British.
British rule
Main articles: British Ceylon
Late 19th century German map of Ceylon.
During the
Napoleonic Wars the
United Kingdom, fearing that
French control of the Netherlands might deliver Sri Lanka to the French, occupied the coastal areas of the island (which they
called Ceylon) with little difficulty in 1796. In 1802 by the
Treaty of Amiens the Dutch part of the island was formally ceded to Britain, and became a crown colony. In 1803 the
British invaded the Kingdom of Kandy in the 1st
Kandyan War, but were bloodily repulsed. In 1815 Kandy was occupied in the 2nd Kandyan War, finally ending Sri Lankan independence. Following the bloody suppression of the
Uva Rebellion or 3rd Kandyan War in 1817–1818, a treaty in 1818 preserved the Kandyan monarchy (
Nayaks of Kandy) as a British dependency.
The Kandyan peasantry were stripped of their lands by the
Wastelands Ordinance, a modern
enclosure movement and reduced to penury. The British found that the uplands of Sri Lanka were very suited to
coffee,
tea and
rubber cultivation, and by the mid 19th century Ceylon tea had become a staple of the British market, bringing great wealth to a small class of white tea planters. To work the estates, the planters imported large numbers of Tamil workers as
indentured labourers from south India, who soon made up 10% of the island's population. These workers had to work in slave-like conditions and to live in
line rooms, not very different from cattle sheds.
The British colonialists favoured the semi-European Burghers and also certain high-
caste Sri Lankans, exacerbating divisions and enmities which have survived ever since. Nevertheless, the British also introduced democratic elements to Sri Lanka for the first time in its history. The Burghers were given some degree of self-government as early as 1833. It was not until 1909 that constitutional development began with a partly-elected assembly, and not until 1920 that elected members outnumbered official appointees.
Universal suffrage was introduced in 1931, over the protests of the Sinhalese, Tamil and Burgher elite who objected to the common people being allowed to vote.
[4][5][6]
Independence movement (1935 to 1970)
In 1919 the
Ceylon National Congress (CNC) was founded to agitate for greater autonomy. The party soon split along ethnic and caste lines, however. It did not seek independence: in the 1930s ministers of the Congress petitioned the colonial government to increase their powers, instead of demanding independence - they were forced to withdraw their 'Ministers' Memorandum' after a vigorous campaign by the
Youth Leagues.
[7][8]
The
Marxist Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP), which grew out of the Youth Leagues in 1935, was the first party to demand independence.
[9] Its deputies in the
State Council,
N.M. Perera and
Philip Gunawardena, were aided in this struggle by other less radical members like
Natesa Iyer and
Don Alwin Rajapaksa. They also demanded the replacement of English as the official language by Sinhala and
Tamil.
Second World War
During
World War II, Sri Lanka was a front-line British base against the Japanese. There was considerable opposition to the war in Sri Lanka, and the LSSP leaders of the pro-independence agitation were arrested by the Colonial authorities. On
5 April 1942, The
Japanese Navy bombed Colombo and LSSP leaders were able to escape. Several of them fled to India, where they participated in the struggle there, but a sizeable contingent remained, led by
Robert Gunawardena, Philip's brother.
The Sri Lankan garrison on the
Cocos Islands mutinied, partly because of the agitation by the LSSP. Three of the mutineers were the only British Commonwealth troops to be shot for mutiny during the Second World War.
[10] Two members of the Governing Party,
Junius Richard Jayawardene and
Dudley Senanayake, held discussions with the Japanese with a view to collaboration to oust the British. Sri Lankans in
Singapore and
Malaysia formed the 'Lanka Regiment' of the
Indian National Army.
Post war
The Sinhalese leader
Don Stephen Senanayake left the CNC on the issue of independence, disagreeing with the revised aim of 'the achieving of freedom'.
[11]. He subsequently formed the
United National Party (UNP) in 1946
[12], when a new constitution was agreed on. At the elections of 1947, the UNP won a minority of the seats in Parliament, but cobbled together a coalition with the
Sinhala Maha Sabha of
Solomon Bandaranaike and the
Tamil Congress of
G.G. Ponnambalam.
Political independence
Dominion status followed in February 1948, with military treaties with Britain (the upper ranks of the armed forces were British) and British air and sea bases remaining intact. Senanayake became the first
Prime Minister of Sri Lanka. In 1949, with the concurrence of the leaders of the
Ceylon Tamils, he disenfranchised the
Indian Tamil plantation workers.
[13][14] He died in 1952 and was succeeded first by his son Dudley Senanayake and in 1953 - following a massive general strike or '
Hartal' by the Left parties against the UNP government which led to Dudley Senanayake's resignation - by a relative,
John Kotelawala. This led to the party being nicknamed the 'Uncle Nephew Party'.
[15].
In 1956 the UNP was defeated at elections (being reduced to 8 seats in Parliament) by the
Mahajana Eksath Peramuna, which included the
Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP) led by
Solomon Bandaranaike and the
Viplavakari Lanka Sama Samaja Party of
Philip Gunawardena. In 1957 British bases were removed and Sri Lanka officially became a non-aligned country. The Paddy Lands Act, the brainchild of Philip Gunawardena was passed, giving those working the land greater rights vis-a-vis absentee landlords.
Bandaraike entered into a pact with
Chelvanayagam of the Tamil-based
Federal Party to secure more rights for the Tamils, but this was torpedoed when
JR Jayawardene of the UNP organised a "March on Kandy" in protest. This triggered hostility from the Tamil minority which soon led to disturbances, culminating in serious riots in 1958.
Philip Gunawardena was removed from the government as the right-wing of the governing coalition grew into the ascendent. Bandaranaike was assassinated in September 1959. His successor
Wijayananda Dahanayake was unable to hold the government together, and elections in March 1960 brought the UNP under Dudley Senanayake back to office, but without a working parliamentary majority.
Fresh elections in July saw Bandaranaike's widow,
Sirimavo Bandaranaike, lead the SLFP to power and become the world's first elected female head of government. Her government avoided further confrontations with the Tamils, but its
socialist policies of
nationalization led to a cut-off of
United States aid and a growing economic crisis. After an attempted
coup-d'etat by right-wing Army and Police officers, aimed at bringing the UNP back to power, Bandaraneike nationalised the oil companies. This led to a boycott of the country by the oil cartels, which was broken with aid from the
Kansas oil producers co-operative. In 1964 she formed a coalition government with the LSSP, a
Trotskyist party with Dr
N.M. Perera as Minister of Finance.
Dissatisfaction with the economic situation brought the UNP under Senanayake back to office in 1965, but this government fared no better, since the underlying cause of Sri Lanka's problems was the declining market for its traditional commodity exports, tea, coffee and rubber.
In 1968 Bandaranaike formed a coalition, the
United Front with the LSSP and the
Communist Party of Sri Lanka, which swept the 1970 polls on a platform of socialism.
Independent republic (1970 to present)
Under Bandaranaike the country became a republic, the Free Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka
[16], the Senate was abolished and the position of Sinhala as the official language (with Tamil as a second language) was confirmed. Full independence was established as the last remaining ties of subjection to the UK were broken (e.g. the
Privy Council was no longer a body of appeal above the Supreme Court). The British-owned plantations were nationalised in order to prevent the ongoing dis-investment by the owning companies.
An attempt was made at economic independence, with a five-year plan to achieve industrial development. However, this was stymied due to a shortage of foreign exchange, which was exacerbated by the oil crisis of 1974, combined with an unprecedented
drought which severely affected the harvest of
rice, the
staple food of the country's people. Strides forward were made in the fields of heavy industry, automotive spares and electronics.
In 1971 a group variously labelled
Maoist or
Guevarist, the
People's Liberation Front (JVP) launched a rebellion, ostensibly revolutionary but considered by some to be motivated largely by anti-Tamil nationalism. Although the JVP rebellion was brutally suppressed, the JVP found a place in Sri Lankan politics as a voice of leftist Sinhalese chauvinism, along with the right-wing movement in the UNP associated with Cyril Mathew. Militant Tamil Chauvinist movements, e.g., the ''Pulip Padai'', had been launched in Trincomalee in 1965. The Jaffna university was "ethnically cleansed" of non-tamils in 1976, and the city itself began to be subject to similar "cleansing".
The extreme-Tamil groups rejected and physically eliminated the main Colombo -Tamil leadership. Tamil public servants or members of parliament working with the government were harassed. The mayor of Jaffna was assassinated in 1975. The militants claimed their independence, their rights, and their "traditional homeland"
[17], and formed armed separatist groups such as the
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam ('Tamil Tigers'), demanding an independent Tamil state called
Eelam. Much of this had the implicit and material support of politicians in India
[18] [19]. The country began to slide towards a civil war where a unique cyanide-carrying suicide brigade appeared.
New constitution
By 1977 the voters were tired of Bandaranaike's socialist policies and elections returned the UNP to power under
Junius Jayewardene on a manifesto pledging a free ration of 8 ''seers'' (kilograms) of
cereals. The SLFP and the left-wing parties were virtually wiped out in Parliament (although they garnered 40% of the popular vote), leaving the
Tamil United Liberation Front, led by
Appapillai Amirthalingam, as the official opposition. This created a dangerous ethnic cleavage in Sri Lankan politics.
Bandaranaike had her civic rights removed by an act of Parliament. In 1978 Jayewardene introduced a new constitution making Sri Lanka a presidential 'Democratic Socialist' republic, with himself as executive President
[17]. In 1980 he crushed a general strike by the trade-union movement, jailing its leaders. When the UNP member for the parliamentary constituency of
Kalawana was removed on an election petition by his
Communist opponent, Jayawardene allowed him to continue sitting in the house.
[18]
In 1977, Colombo abandoned statist economic policies and its import substitution trade policy for market-oriented policies and export-oriented trade. This included the opening of free-trade zones with a heavy emphasis on exports of garments from these zones.
Elections to District Councils in 1981 were marred by the open theft of ballot boxes in Jaffna. The
Jaffna Library, the repository of thousands of valuable documents was burned down by government thugs.
President Jayawardene had the constitution amended (one of 13 amendments during his 10 years in office) to allow presidential elections to be held early, in 1982. The main opposition candidate,
Hector Kobbekaduwa was garlanded with onions by the farmers of the Jaffna peninsular, impoverished by the policy of unrestricted imports.
The Presidential election, held amidst widespread acts of electoral malpractice (Hector Kobbekaduwa arrived at the polling station only to find his vote had already been cast) resulted in Jayawardene's re-election. He followed this with an infamous
plebiscite on postponing parliamentary elections for six years. Associates of Kobbekaduwa, such as
TB Ilangaratne and
Vijaya Kumaratunga, were jailed as '
Naxalites', a political creed unheard of in Sri Lanka, before or since. The Commissioner of Elections, in his report on the referendum, reported that it was flawed.
In 1983 following a demonstration against the US military occupation of
Diego Garcia, former MP
Vivienne Goonewardena was physically assaulted at a police station. Her fundamental rights application in this matter was upheld by the Supreme Court in an act of judicial independence.
[19] Following this, thugs stoned the houses of the Supreme Court judges who had made the ruling and the police officer who had been convicted had his fine paid by the government and received a promotion.
Civil war (1983 to present)
In July 1983 communal riots took place due to the ambush and killing of 13 Sri Lankan Army soldiers by the Tamil Tigers. Using the voters list which contained the exact addresses of Tamils, the Tamil community faced a severe backlash from the Sinhalese rioters including the destruction of shops. It was rumoured that people behind the riots were government thugs supported by Jayewardene and his cabinet. While many Sinhalese were involved in the mob, many other Sinhalese kept Tamil neighbours in their homes to protect them from the rioters. During these riots the government did nothing to control the mob. Conservative government estimates put the death toll at 400
[20] with 150,000 leaving the country resulting in a Tamil Diaspora in Canada, UK, Australia and other western countries.
Jayewardene held office until 1989, ruling as a virtual dictator under emergency powers. In 1987, following an army offensive in the Vadamarachchi peninsular,
India started getting deeply involved in the ethnic conflict.
[21] A convoy sent by India was stopped in Sri Lankan waters by the
Sri Lankan Navy and the
Indian Air Force retaliated with an air drop of supplies onto the Jaffna peninsular. While the UNP organised street protests against India, Jayawardene declared that he would defend the country's independence to the last bullet.
However, the air drop also caused Jayawardene to reconsider his position and he then accepted the offer of Indian Prime Minister
Rajiv Gandhi of a Peace Accord.
[22] Rajiv Gandhi's offer to send troops into Sri Lanka was deeply unpopular with the Sinhalese and, although initially popular with the Tamils, led to an outbreak of hostilities between the Tamil Tigers and the
Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) - Eelam War II.
In 1989 Jayewardene was succeeded by his own choice as President,
Ranasinghe Premadasa, who asked for the Indian troops to be withdrawn - which was later done by Indian Prime Minister
V.P. Singh. Premadasa was assassinated by a Tamil Tiger
suicide bomber in 1993. Rajiv Gandhi had already met a similar fate in 1991.
Premadasa was succeeded by
Dingiri Banda Wijetunga, with
Ranil Wickremasinghe as Prime Minister. In August 1994 the
People's Alliance under Bandaranaike's daughter
Chandrika Kumaratunga won legislative elections on a platform of concessions to the Tamils and a 'balanced economy'. Kumaratunga became Prime Minister and in November she was elected President, appointing her 78-year-old (but still active) mother Prime Minister. A ceasefire ensued, which broke down after several months - the beginning of Eelam War III. Under the Bandaranaikes the war dragged on, with the military unable to defeat the separatists and the government opposed to negotiations. By 2000 an estimated 65,000 people had been killed in the conflict.
At Presidential elections in 1999, former Prime Minister Wickremesinghe of the UNP contested on a platform of no concessions to the Tamils, but was defeated by Kumaratunga. A 180-degree turn in UNP policy occurred and in December 2001 the UNP returned to office on a policy of a negotiated settlement with the Tigers, with Wickremasinghe as Prime Minister. A cease fire began, the first long cessation of hostilities since the beginning of the conflict. But the 1978 constitution left the Prime Minister with little power against a hostile President, and Kumaratunga did all she could to frustrate Wickremesinghe's government. In March 2004 she dismissed Wickremesinghe and called fresh elections, which returned the SLFP to office under
Mahinda Rajapakse.
By 2005 there had been no further progress towards either a military or political solution. The assassination of Foreign Minister
Lakshman Kadirgamar in August 2005, by the LTTE (although they denied responsibility), further hardened attitudes. His successor was
Anura Bandaranaike, the President's brother and putative political heir. Twenty years of civil conflict had done immense damage to Sri Lankan society and the economy, which has fallen behind other Asian economies, although it remains the second most prosperous nation in South Asia.
In elections held on
17 November 2005,
Mahinda Rajapakse, the son of Don Alwin Rajapaksa, was elected President, defeating Wickremasinghe. He appointed
Ratnasiri Wickremanayake Prime Minister and
Mangala Samaraweera Foreign Minister. Negotiations with the LTTE stalled and low-intensity conflict began. The violence dipped off after talks in February, but escalated in April; it remains to be seen whether or not the conflict will revert to full-scale war.
On August 2006
Red Cross evacuated 150 foreigners from Jaffna region after one month of fighting between the LTTE and the government.
See also
★
Prehistory of Sri Lanka
★
Mahawamsa
★
Irrigation works of ancient Sri Lanka
★
Ancient Constructions of Sri Lanka
★
Architecture of ancient Sri Lanka
References
1. Ramayana at a Glance, , Sant, Keshavadas, Motilal Banarsidass, 1988,
2. Geiger-Bode translation of the Mahavamsa
3. Paranavithana Epigraphics Zeylanica
4. Indo-European Folk-Tales and Greek Legend by W. R. Halliday
5. see place names
6. S. Kiribamuna, "The role of the Port city of Mahathathitha in the Trade networks of the Indian Ocean", in "Reflections on a Heritage", Part I 2000
7. Since the epithet 'Muridi' is prefixed to the name '-Utara' (Skt. Uttara), Dr S. Paranavitana believed that Muridi is a derivative of Muruda, which is the same as Murunda in the compound Saka-Murunda that occurs in the Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta. Dr S. Konow (1929: XX), referring to the same inscription argued that murunda is almost certainly a Saka word meaning 'master', 'lord', and he argued that the word murunda has become synonymome with Saka, when applied to royalty.
8. K. Indrapala, ''J. Roy. Asiatic Soc''. (CB) p10, 1969
9. Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 341-42, 347, Dr J. L. kamboj
10. Ships and the Development of Maritime Technology on the Indian Ocean, 2002, pp 108-109, David Parkin and Ruth Barnes; The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia (Cambridge World Archaeology) 2003, p 206, Himanshu Prabha Ray, Norman Yoffee, Susan Alcock, Tom Dillehay, Stephen Shennan, and Carla Sinopoli (14 August, 2003) - Cambridge University Press; Nirvana and Other Buddhist Felicities, Cambridge Studies in Religious Traditions, Steven Collins....See APPENDIX 4, Selections from the Story of the Elder Máleyya i.e Maleyyadevattheravatthu).
11. Mahavamsa X.90, XII.5, XII.37-39; Dipavamsa. VIII.9; Samantapasadika, (P.T.B.)..I.67; See: History of Ceylon, Vol I, Part I, pp 88-91, Dr S Parnavitana
12. Ships and the Development of Maritime Technology on the Indian Ocean, 2002, pp 108-109, David Parkin and Ruth Barnes; The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia (Cambridge World Archaeology) 2003, p 206, Himanshu Prabha Ray, Norman Yoffee, Susan Alcock, Tom Dillehay, Stephen Shennan, and Carla Sinopoli (14 August, 2003) - Cambridge University Press; The Beginnings of Civilization in South India, Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 29, No. 3 (May, 1970), pp. 603-616, Clarence Maloney)
13. R. L. Broheir, Ancient Irrigation Works in Ceylon, 3 Vols. 1937
14. p742
15. http://infolanka.com/org/srilanka/hist/hist4.html
16. S. Paranavitana, ''JRAS(CB)'' NS 7(2) 1961
17. K. M.de Silva, Conflict and Violence in South Asia, p.384 ICES, 2004
18. R. Gunaratna, ''International Regional Security Implications of the Sri Lankan Tamil Insurgency'', 1997
19. M. R. Singer, Asian Survey 32, part II, p 168 1991
Books and magazines
★ Arsecularatne, S. N, ''Sinhalese immigrants in Malaysia & Singapore, 1860-1990: History through recollections'', Colombo, KVG de Silva & Sons, 1991
★ Brohier, R. L, ''The Golden Age of Military Adventure in Ceylon: an account of the Uva Rebellion 1817-1818''. Colombo: 1933
★ Crusz, Noel, ''The Cocos Islands Mutiny''. Fremantle Arts Centre Press, Fremantle, WA, 2001
★ Deraniyagala, Siran, ''The Prehistory of Sri Lanka; an ecological perspective''. (revised ed.), Colombo: Archaeological Survey Department of Sri Lanka, 1992
★ Liyanagamage, Amaradasa, ''The decline of Polonnaruwa and the rise of Dambadeniya''. Department of Cultural Affairs, Government Press, Colombo, Sri Lanka. 1968.
★ Pieris, Paulus Edward, ''Ceylon and Hollanders 1658-1796''. American Ceylon Mission Press, 1918.
★ Pieris, Paulus Edward, ''Ceylon and the Portuguese 1505-1658''. American Ceylon Mission Press, 1920.
★ William Adair Nelson and R. Kumar de Silva, ''The Dutch Forts of Sri Lanka''. Reprint: Sri Lanka - Netherlands Association, Colombo, 2004 (First ed. in 1984)
★ R. Kumar de Silva and Willemina G. M. Beumer, ''Illustrations and Views of Dutch Ceylon, 1602-1796''. Serendib Publications, London, 1988.
External links
★
Sri Lanka in 1942 - World War II Movie Clip
★
Library of Congress Country Study: Sri Lanka
★
The Netherlands - Ceylon Heritage
★
Colombo in Dutch Times
★
Jacob Haafner. Travels Through The Island of Ceylon in 1783
★
The Dutch in Ceylon glimpse of their life and times
★
The Journal of the Dutch Burgher Union of Ceylon
★
A Baptism of Fire: The Van Goens Mission to Ceylon and India, 1653-54
★
1694 Census in Jaffnapatnam City and Castle
★
Dutch and Portuguese Buildings in Sri Lanka
★
Tourist Board of Sri Lanka
★
hWeb - Sri Lanka’s recent history of ethnic conflict originates from its colonial legacy
★
Books on Sri Lanka History
★
Maritime Heritage in Sri Lanka
العربية
中国
Français
Deutsch
Ελληνική
हिन्दी
Italiano
日本語
Português
Русский
Español
