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The 'history of monarchy in Canada' stretches from the pre-colonial times of Canada to the present day. Well into the 19th century, a number of First Nations were structured on a monarchical principal, whether hereditary or elected. The present Canadian monarchy can trace its ancestral lineage back to the Anglo-Saxon and Merovingian periods, and ultimately back to the kings of the Angles, the early Scottish kings, and the Frankish kingdom of Clovis I. Parts of the territories that today comprise Canada were claimed under King Francis I in 1534, while others were claimed by Queen Elizabeth I in 1583. Throughout the 18th century, via war and treaties, the Canadian colonies of France were ceded to King George III. The colonies were confederated by Queen Victoria in 1867 to form Canada as a kingdom in its own right,^[1] and the country was proclaimed fully independent, via constitutional patriation in 1982, by Queen Elizabeth II, who is the current Canadian monarch. The Canadian Crown is one of an approximate half-dozen that have survived through uninterrupted inheritance from before the country itself was founded.⁷

Contents

Pre-colonial

Kingdoms and Colonies

Confederation and the Dominion

Monarchy into the 20th Century

Monarchy during & after the "War To End All Wars"

Between the Wars

World War II and the resident monarchies

Monarchy after the wars

Monarchy in the New Millennium

Monarchs of Canadian territories

See also

External links

Footnotes

Pre-colonial

Monarchy has been a concept in Canada since before the first encounters between French and British colonizers and indigenous North Americans.^[2][3] Prior to European settlement, some First Nations were organized similar to monarchies;^[4] Europeans often considered vast tracts of land within territories of different aboriginal groups to be kingdoms, and the leaders of these groups were referred to by the Europeans as kings, particularly hereditary leaders.^[5] While no Aboriginal group in pre-colonial Canada had what would be seen today as an official monarchy, many did have chiefs, whose powers varied from one nation to the next. In some examples the Chief would exercise considerable authority and influence on the decisions of the group, while in others the Chief was more of a symbolic or ceremonial figure. Combined with the point that many First Nations societies were governed by unwritten customs and codes of conduct, wherein the chieftain was bound to follow the advice of a council of elders.some aborigional governments would have closely resembled a modern constitutional monarchy.^[6]

Kingdoms and Colonies

Since the establishment of New France, Canada has been the territory of a monarchy or a monarchy in its own right. Kings and queens reigning over Canada have included the monarchs of France (from Francis I in 1534 to Louis XV in 1763), those of the UK (from Anne of Great Britain in 1713 to King George VI in 1952), to Queen Elizabeth II as Queen of Canada today.
It was with letters patent from King Henri IV that Samuel de Champlain founded the first permanent European settlement at Quebec. Champlain proposed in 1615, to the Court in Paris, that Quebec be the royal capital of a great empire.^[7] During the period of colonization in North America, representatives of monarchs, often called governors, handled affairs of State. The first Canadian-born governor was Pierre François de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnal, who represented King Louis XV in New France.^[8] Areas governed by British monarchs were primarily known as colonies, while New France ruled by French monarchs varied. At one time New France was a province of France ruled directly by its King.
Relations with aboriginals, originally considered to be between European and North American monarchs, changed to that between sovereign and subject, leading to the incorporation of treaties with the Crown into the political culture of Canada. The rule of various monarchs as well as their affairs in Europe would also affect the affairs of the European colonies in North America. Eventually almost all of the French possessions in what was known as Canada would be transferred from the French Crown to the British Crown, providing Canada with one singular monarchy.
During the period of transfer of territories between the Crowns, the area of Acadia (today Nova Scotia), then populated by descendants of French colonialists, was ceded by France to Britain through the Treaty of Utrecht in 1715. However, during the escalation of hostilities in the lead up to the Seven Years' War, the Acadians were asked by British officials, uneasy over which side the Acadians' loyalties lay with, to reaffirm their allegiance to the British Crown. The Acadians refused, and were subsequently deported from the area, many resettling in Louisiana, New France, other British-American colonies, or France itself. This act became known as the Great Upheaval.
Prince William, later King William IV, arrived in Canada in July of 1776, when he stated of the country, and more specifically, St. John's, "truly deplorable... a most dreadful, inhospitable and barren country." However, he later changed his opinion after meeting the local women, and commented on Canada's "inexhaustible supply of women of the most obliging kind."^[9]
Prince Edward (later Edward, Duke of Kent) served in Canada on military duties and as Commander of British North American troops from 1791 until the turn of that century; it is said that during that time he fathered two children in Canada by his Canadian mistress, Julie de St. Laurent.⁹ In 1792, when the first elections for the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada took place, a riot, fuelled by ethnic character, broke out at one of the polls. The Prince climbed up to where he could be heard and addressed the crowd, stating: "Part then in peace. I urge you to unanimity and accord. Let me hear no more of the odious distinctions of English and French. You are all His Britannic Majesty's beloved Canadian subjects." It was reportedly the first time the word "Canadian", which had previously been reserved only for Francophones, was used in a manner that included all colonialists.³⁴
Almost twenty years later, Prince Edward's only daughter, Victoria, was born on May 24, 1819, at Kensington Palace. However, Edward died shortly thereafter, leaving Victoria heir to the throne. Upon the death King William IV, who had, as Prince William, served in Canada and the West Indies as part of a naval contingent through 1786 to 1787, Victoria ascended as Queen at the age of 18. The final transition to a constitutional monarchy throughout the Empire was made during her long reign.
Though she would never visit Canada, thanks to the spread of newspapers and the invention of photography, her image was reproduced sufficiently to maintain popularity and loyalty in her colonies. However, there were still insurrections against the Crown during the early part of her reign, notably the Rebellions of 1837. These rebellions led the British government to grant responsible government to the Canadas, with the support of Victoria herself. (This later became the subject of a CBC Heritage Minute historical vignette.)

Victoria's marriage to Prince Albert brought nine children between 1840 and 1857. Some of her children and grandchildren would come to live at Rideau Hall, as members of the Royal family would become Governors General of Canada.

Confederation and the Dominion

Prior to the creation of Canada in 1867 through a document called the ''British North America Act'' (BNA Act) a number of issues were of concern during the discussions over the act; most notably the threat of invasion by the United States. It was argued by William Lewis Morton that the saw the structuring of the Canadian Dominion as a kingdom not as some "bait for dim-witted Tory voters" but instead as a way to balance between the the Russian Empire and the popular sovereignty of the United States, the former seen as despotic and the latter having just led to the American Civil War. As Morton put it, "there is no pressure for uniformity... Monarchy made it possible to achieve all these things, whereas republican democracy would, it seemed, have ensured the victory of local interests and race antagonisms in British America, a victory ending in absorption to the United States."^[10]
The Fathers of Confederation had also originally wanted to create their new country as "The Kingdom of Canada," and there remained debate over where the capital was to be.
The former issue, though supported by Prime Minister John A. Macdonald and Governor General Viscount Monk,^[11] caused worries that such a name would provoke the United States to the south. As a compromise and in tribute to the monarchical principle, the term ''Dominion'' was adopted in the 1867 act as the country's legal title, and ''Dominion of Canada'' would be sanctioned as an official political title for the country.^[12] Many names other than ''Canada'' had also been proposed, one of which was Victorialand in honour of the Queen.
:''Further information: Canada's name
The BNA was given Royal Assent by Victoria on July 1, 1867, establishing D'Arcy McGee's desired vesting of "Peace, order and good government" in Queen Victoria.⁷ The BNA Act left the decision of whether or not Canada's capital should be in York (now Toronto), Montreal, Quebec City, or even Kingston, to the Queen. Many myths surrounding the decision would develop over time, but ultimately the Queen's reasoning was that Bytowne (Ottawa, as it was renamed) was both defensible, located on the Ottawa River (a major waterway), and sat on the border of Upper (English) and Lower (French) Canada.
After the Second Reform Act of 1867, and the growth of the two-party (Liberal and Conservative) system, the Queen's room for manoeuvre decreased. Her freedom to choose which individual should occupy the Premiership (office of the Prime Minister) was increasingly restricted. still, the ceremonial role for the Crown increased through the first visit of a member of the Royal Family to the new country of Canada, with the arrival of Queen Victoria's second son, Prince Arthur, who woul himself later become Governor General of Canada. The Queen was sent back pictures of her son's tour of the towns of Ontario and Quebec. Though then Governor General Lord Lisgar officiated, the Prince also attended an investiture ceremony in Montreal. Of the Prince, Lady Lisgar noted in a letter to the Queen that Canadians seemed hopeful that Prince Arthur would one day return as governor general.^[13]

In 1878 Lord Lorne's appointment as Governor General of Canada was announced. For the first time Rideau Hall would have a royal resident – Victoria's fourth daughter, Princess Louise. During their stay Louise's brother, Prince Leopold, came to visit in 1880, and two years later Prince George, later King George V, paid a visit to his aunt.^[14]
The royal couple made many lasting contributions to Canadian society especially in the arts and sciences, including the establishment of the Royal Society of Canada, the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts and the National Gallery of Canada. At Rideau Hall, he and Princess Louise hosted many skating and tobogganing parties as well as balls, dinners and State occasions. A door on which the Princess painted sprigs of apple blossoms can still be seen in the Monck wing corridor in Rideau Hall. Louise also gave the name Regina (which is Latin for Queen) to the capital of Saskatchewan, and Alberta's Lake Louise was named after her.

In Queen Victoria's latter years, both the Golden (1887) and the Diamond (1897) Jubilees, held to celebrate the 50th and 60th anniversaries of the queen's accession, were marked with great displays and public ceremonies in Canada. On both occasions, Colonial Conferences attended by the Prime Ministers of the self-governing colonies, including Canada's, were held in the United Kingdom. In December, 1894, Prime Minister Sir John Thompson died of a heart attack at Windsor Castle, where he had just been sworn into the Imperial Privy Council by Queen Victoria. The Queen, by then aged and in a wheelchair, was wheeled in to place a wreath on Thompson's coffin. This moment was captured in a painting by Frederic Bell-Smith, but the canvases were destroyed in the burning of the Parliament Buildings in 1916.^[15]
Victoria died at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight, on 22 January 1901 after a reign lasting almost 64 years, the longest in British and Canadian history. At the time, Lord Minto, then Governor General, and Prime Minister Sir Wilfrid Laurier, were at odds concerning the church in which to hold the official memorial service for the late queen in Ottawa. Minto favoured the Church of England Cathedral, respecting the church to which the Queen had belonged, while Sir Wilfrid and other ministers attended services of their own communion.^[16]
Victoria's long and popular reign resulted in many cities such as Victoria, British Columbia being named in her honour, and monuments, such as statues were placed on Parliament Hill and throughout the provinces. The Queen's reign was permanently memorialised in Canada after her death when, in spring 1901, it was debated in the House of Commons on the continuation of May 24 as a holiday marking the late Queen's birthday, and its naming as Victoria Day, to distinguish it from the King's birthday celebration to be held in November.^[17]

Monarchy into the 20th Century

Victoria's reign was followed by King Edward VII.
In 1901 the Son of Edward VII, Prince George (later George V), and his wife, the Duchess of Cornwall and York, toured across Canada, from Montreal to Victoria and back to Halifax, as part of an Empire-wide voyage. It was reported that at one state dinner the couple "shook hands with between two and three thousand guests, never appearing tired, but always manifesting signs of interest, bowing and smiling to all presented to them."^[18] In 1908, the Duke returned, as Prince of Wales, to celebrate Quebec City's tercentenary. Though he would not return to Canada, the reign of King George V would oversee the first World War, as well as great constitutional changes for the British Empire, and set the stage for the rise of the Commonwealth; events having profound effect on the Dominion of Canada.
1911 saw Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, the third son of Queen Victoria, return to Canada for a fourth time, to occupy his post as Governor General. He was thus the first member of the Royal Family to serve as Governor General of Canada. The new king, George V, had much to do with the appointment of his uncle to the position.^[19]

Monarchy during & after the "War To End All Wars"

During the First World War Prince Arthur stressed the importance of Canadian military contributions, but also sought to enhance charity at home. The Connaughts also made an effort to contribute to the social life of the capital, making Rideau Hall a major site for events for Canadians from across the country; a practice that continues today.
The Prince went to his office in the East Block of Parliament Hill daily when he was in Ottawa. He also travelled throughout Canada with his family, meeting various Canadians, and promoting military training and readiness for Canadian troops. Port Arthur, now part of Thunder Bay, Ontario, was named in his honour. He also gave his name to Connaught Cup, for pistol marksmanship of recruits in the Royal North West Mounted Police. He was active in auxiliary war services and charities and conducted a number hospital visits.

Princess Patricia, his daughter, also lent her name and support to the raising of a new Canadian army regiment - Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry. Princess Patricia personally designed its badge and colours for the regiment to take overseas to France, and as the regiment's Colonel-in-Chief, played an active role in the regiment until her death.
The Duchess of Connaught, in addition to working for the Red Cross and other organisations, for Christmas in 1915 sent a card and a box of maple sugar to every Canadian serving overseas. She also had a knitting machine at Rideau Hall, on which she made thousands of pairs of socks for soldiers. Following the war, the Duke commissioned a stained glass window, located in St. Bartholomew's Church, next to Rideau Hall, in memory of the Government House staff who lost their lives during the war.
In September of 1916, after the Parliament buildings were almost completely destroyed by fire in February of the same year, Prince Arthur laid the cornerstone for the new buildings in Ottawa. In addition improvements were made to Rideau Hall during the Connaught's term. The present facade (which includes the Royal Coat of Arms carved in stone) was added to the front of the building, as well as other renovations and the planting of hundreds of deciduous trees on the grounds.
At the end of 1916 Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught, publicly stated his regret on leaving Canada, as he and his family had grown very comfortable there.
Edward, Prince of Wales, toured Canada in 1919, when, in Toronto, he was greeted with enthusiasm by a crowd of soldiers just returned from Europe after the end of the War. They lifted the Prince off his horse, and "passed him, like a football, over their heads." During that same visit a veteran approached the Prince and said "put it there, Ed." From that point on Edward shook hands with anyone who approached him, to the point where his right hand "became so black, swollen and painful from the continued enthusiastic handshaking that, in his own words, he 'retired it temporarily from Imperial service, and offered the left instead."⁹

Between the Wars

Ten years later the advice of a Canadian Prime Minister was publicly rejected by a vice-regal for the first time since Confederation in 1867. In early 1926, Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King went, amid scandals and fearing a loss of the confidence of the House, to Governor General Lord Byng requesting a dissolution of Parliament and the issue of Election Writs. Byng, without consulting the British government, used his constitutional ability to exercise the Royal Prerogative, and refused. Without support, this forced King to tender his resignation to Byng, who then invited Arthur Meighen, leader of the Loyal Opposition, to form a government. However, within days Meighen lost the confidence of the House by only one vote, and an election was forced anyway, with the results being a return of King's Liberals to a majority, forcing Byng to appoint him as Prime Minister again.^[20]
Stemming from this incident, the results of an Imperial Conference began a chain of events which greatly changed Canada's relationship to the United Kingdom, and the role of the Monarchy within the country. It was with the issuing of the Balfour Declaration that year that the dominions of the British Crown were declared to be considered equal to the UK, a concept introduced by Mackenzie King, based on his experiences with the "King-Byng Affair" earlier that year.^[21] This declaration also instigated the convention that the Governor General would no longer be a diplomatic channel between the Canadian and British governments, but rather a direct representative of the King only.
The first example of these concepts affecting law was seen in ''Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act'' of 1927. In regards to the former dominions, this act altered part of the King's title to reflect his status as King of each realm individually, rather than as King of the United Kingdom throughout all the dominions. By 1931 these concepts of independence and equality were written into the ''Statute of Westminster'', along with a legal end of the ability of the British Parliament to legislate for Canada. As a result only his Canadian ministers could now advise the King on Canadian affairs. Further, laws outlining the line of succession, most notably the ''Act of Settlement, 1701'', were now under the control of the Canadian Parliament; however, it was laid out in the preamble to the Statute that no Realm could alter the line of succession without the expressed consent of each of the other Realms. This convention applied to the UK as well.^[22]
In 1931, George V proposed that his son, then Prince Albert, Duke of York, become Governor General of Canada. This proposal was ultimately rejected by the Canadian ministers; but, as Albert went on to become King George VI, had the idea been accepted, a Canadian Governor General who represented the King would have gone on to become King of Canada himself.^[23]
In 1932 King George gave the first annual Christmas Broadcast by the Sovereign to the Empire. This tradition is continued to day as a broadcast to the Commonwealth.
Three years later the King celebrated his Silver Jubilee. However, he would die in 1936 and his son succeeded to the throne as King Edward VIII. However, that same year George VI became King of Canada unexpectedly following the abdication of his brother. Governor General Lord Tweedsmuir conveyed to Buckingham Palace and British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin, of Canadians' deep affection for the King, but also of the outrage towards Canadian puritanism, both Catholic and Protestant, that would occur if Edward VIII married a divorcée.^[24] It was this abdication that first demonstrated that each Realm now had control over the line of succession within its jurisdiction; with Canada passing the ''Succession to the Throne Act'' (1 Geo. IV, c.16) to effect changes to the rules of succession in Canada to assure consistency with the changes in the rules then in place in Great Britain; and the Irish Free State passing their abdication act a day following the other Realms.^[25]

Canada's Governor General from 1935 to 1940 was John Buchan, Lord Tweedsmuir, who fostered Canadian pride during his tenure. However, not all in Canada shared his views; Tweedsmuir raised the ire of imperialists when he said, in Montreal in 1937, "A Canadian's first loyalty is not to the British Commonwealth of Nations, but to Canada and Canada's King,"^[26] the ''Montreal Gazette'' dubbing the statement "disloyal."^[27] In the same year Buchan, by then Baron Tweedsmuir, conceived of a Royal Tour by the Canadian Monarchs; and idea that the official Royal Visit historian, Gustave Lanctot, stated in his official account of the visit, "probably grew out of the knowledge that at his coming Coronation, George VI was to assume the additional title of King of Canada." Tweedsmuir's desire was to demonstrate with living example the fact of Canada's status as an independent kingdom, having Canadians "see their King performing royal functions, supported by his Canadian ministers." Prime Minister Mackenzie King presented the King with the official invitation while he was in London for the Coronation in May, 1937. According to biographer J.A. Smith, the task for Tweedsmuir, and the Canadian government, was "how to translate the Statute of Westminster into the actualities of a tour... since this was the first visit of a reigning monarch to a Dominion, and precedents were being made."^[28]

On May 17, 1939, King George VI and Queen Elizabeth arrived for the tour of Canada on board the Canadian Pacific liner RMS ''Empress of Australia''; the recepton at Quebec City, Trois-Rivières and Montreal were positive beyond expectations.^[29] One of the first tasks for the King to perform, upon his arrival at his official residence at La Citadelle, was to accept Daniel Calhoun Roper as the American Envoy to Canada. Two days later, the King went to the Canadian Parliament and granted Royal Assent to nine bills. Following the ceremony, George stated: "No ceremony could more completely symbolize the free and equal association of the nations of the Commonwealth." During this Royal Tour, the couple traveled the country from coast to coast. The King and Queen also made a brief foray into the United States, visiting Washington, New York and Poughkeepsie; they were accompanied by the Canadian Prime Minister, still Mackenzie King, as the sole Minister in Attendance, rather than by a British minister, by way of reinforcing that their visit to the United States was a visit from Canada.^[30] To a large extent this was a matter of public relations and, as the American part of the tour (as with the Canadian sectors) was calculated to shore up sympathy for Britain in anticipation of hostilities with Germany (Goodwin, op. cit.). Nevertheless, as early as 1939 it was deemed appropriate for the novel doctrine of the discrete crowns of Commonwealth Realms to be ostentatiously asserted.
Prime Minister King also wished that this tour of the King and Queen would be an assertion of Canada's status as a kingdom independent of Britain. As he stated in his diary on May 17, 1939: "I ... told [the Queen] that I felt somewhat embarrassed about taking in the entire trip with Their Majesties; that it looked like pushing myself to the fore, yet I felt that unless some evidence of Dominion precedence existed, one of the main purposes of the trip would be gone. The Queen then said: The King and I felt right along that you should come with us."^[31]
This visit marked the first time that the Sovereign's official Canadian birthday was marked with the Sovereign himself present in the country. Forty-six years later, during a tour of Canada, Queen Elizabeth, by then the Queen Mother, stated in a speech: "It is now some 46 years since I first came to this country with the King, in those anxious days shortly before the outbreak of the Second World War. I shall always look back upon that visit with feelings of affection and happiness. I think I lost my heart to Canada and Canadians, and my feelings have not changed with the passage of time."^[32]

World War II and the resident monarchies

Once war broke out in Europe later that year, it had originally been planned that the King, Queen, and their children would leave London, UK, for Colwood, British Columbia, the location of Hatley Castle, which the federal government had purchased for use as a Royal Palace for King George VI and his family.^[33] However, it was decided that morale in Britain would be diminished if the Royal Family were to abandon the European front, and they remained in London and Windsor.
Instead the arrangements made for Canada's Monarchy was adapted for Europe's leaders in exile. Among Canada's royal guests were Crown Prince Olav and Crown Princess Martha of Norway, Grand Duchess Charlotte and Prince Felix of Luxembourg, King Peter of Yugoslavia, King George of Greece, Empress Zita of Bourbon-Parma (Austria) and her daughters, as well as Queen Wilhelmina, Princess Juliana of the Netherlands, Princess Beatrix of the Netherlands, and Princess Margriet of the Netherlands. Many of the aforementioned resided at Rideau Hall itself.
Princess Margriet was born in Ottawa, at the Civic Hospital, where the delivery room was temporarily declared Dutch soil to ensure that the Princess was born in the Netherlands, though it would later be ruled that she was a still a British subject, making her later still, and today, a subject of the Canadian Crown. To this day, Holland sends tulips to Ottawa for the Tulip Festival, which commemorates the assistance Canada gave to Holland.
In 1940 following the sudden death of John Buchan, 1st Baron Tweedsmuir while in office, Alexander Cambridge, 1st Earl of Athlone, an uncle of King George VI, was approached to assume the post of Governor General of Canada. Though they arrived safely, the trip to Canada with his wife, Princess Alice (a granddaughter of Queen Victoria) was complicated by the war with Nazi Germany. The same year Princess Elizabeth, though not able to reside in Canada, posed for her first official Canadian portrait, and, with her parents, visited Canadian service personnel stationed in the United Kingdom. She also undertook solo duties such as reviewing a parade of Canadian airwomen in 1945. Two years following, the Princess was appointed by her father as Colonel-in-Chief of Le Regiment de la Chaudiere and the 48th Highlanders of Canada, her first appointments in the Canadian Forces.^[34]
During his time in Office the Earl of Athlone and Princess Alice became key supporters of the war effort. Princess Alice became Honorary Commandant of a number of women's military services, and His Excellency travelled extensively in Canada in an effort to spread the message that King George VI was dedicated to fighting totalitarianism.
In 1943 and 1944 respectively, the Royal, and Vice-Regal, couple, hosted American President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill at the Quebec Conferences. These meetings in La Citadelle du Québec helped decide the strategies of the Western Allies that would lead to victory over Nazi Germany and Japan in 1945.

Monarchy after the wars

Princess Elizabeth and her husband came to Canada in 1951, where she attended her first hockey game at Maple Leaf Gardens. During the tour she carried a draft Accession Declaration in case her ailing father died while she was in his Canadian realm.³⁴

After the King eventually failed to recover from a lung operation, and died in his sleep on February 6, 1952, at Sandringham House, Queen Elizabeth II ascended the throne of her numerous realms, as well as to the headship of the Commonwealth of Nations. She was already familiar to numerous Canadians, having broadcast for the first time in October 1940, when she was 14, sending a message during the BBC's children's programme, to all the children of Britain and the Commonwealth.
It was during a 1947 tour of South Africa that she celebrated her twenty-first birthday, and gave a broadcast address dedicating herself to the service of the Commonwealth. This was a first for a female heiress, as it was traditional for the Prince of Wales (which at the time there was none) to make an oath to his future subjects. She repeated her dedication five years later during her Coronation Oath.
The Queen's Coronation took place in Westminster Abbey on June 2, 1953, with the prime ministers and leading citizens of Canada present amongst representatives of the other Commonwealth countries, and of foreign states. The Queen's coronation gown, commissioned from Norman Hartnell, was embroidered with Canada's maple leaf, along with the floral emblems of the other countries of the Commonwealth.^[35]
The ceremony was broadcast on radio around the world and, at the Queen's request, on television. That winter Her Majesty set out to accomplish, as Queen, the Commonwealth tour she had begun before the death of her father.

Since that time the Queen has been present in Canada more than any other monarch before her. In 1957 she toured Ottawa and Hull opening the 1st Session of Canada's 23rd Parliament. It was at the beginning of this tour that the Queen gave her first-ever television address, reading a speech from Rideau Hall, followed by various musical performances in honour of the Queen, including a live performance by Glenn Gould (footage of which was only just discovered leading up to the Queen's 2002 Jubilee tour of Canada). Elizabeth and her husband travelled on to the United States to attend the 350th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown and meet with President Dwight D. Eisenhower at the White House. As Prime Minister John Diefenbaker was the Queen's minister in attendance during this international visit, Elizabeth met the President as Queen of Canada, as opposed to Queen of the United Kingdom.²⁷
:''See also: Glenn Gould - Lost footage''
Two years later Queen Elizabeth II toured every province and territory and opened the St. Lawrence Seaway. It was here, in Prescott, Ontario that she made her first ever live appearance on Canadian television.^[36] In 1964 she would commemorate the Charlottetown and Quebec conferences, and another three years later Canada's centennial and attend the Montreal Expo.
In 1973 Queen Elizabeth II hosted the Commonwealth Heads of Government meeting in Ottawa, receiving each Prime Minister at Rideau Hall. She would be present for many more events ranging from Her Proclamation of the Constitution Act 1982, to her Silver and Golden Jubilees, and mark the anniversaries of the entry of many provinces and territories into confederation.
Through the 1960s and 70s, the rise of Quebec nationalism and changes in Canadian identity created an atmosphere where the purpose and role of the Canadian Monarchy came into question. During a visit to Quebec in 1964, at the height of the Quiet Revolution, the Quebec press published reports of a separatist plot to assassinate the Queen, and the sentiment became pronounced when she was greeted by anti-monarchist demonstrations; the route of her procession was lined with Quebecers showing their backs to the Monarch. On ''Samedi de la matraque'' (Truncheon Saturday), police violently dispersed anti-monarchist demonstrators and arrested 36, including some who were there to cheer the Queen.^[37] Royal tour organizers were aware of a potential for danger, and the media stirred up a campaign of fear around the risks that could arise from separatist threats. However, according to Robert Speaight in his book ''Vanier, Soldier, Diplomat and Governor General: A Biography'', though there was talk of cancelling the tour, the Queen's Private Secretary stated that the Elizabeth would have been horrified to have been prevented from going because of the activities of extremists.⁴³ Later, in 1982, a visit by the Queen's sister, Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon, to Cambridge, Ontario was threatened by Irish nationalist activists; though nothing eventuated, there was a scare when a gun barrel was thought to have been seen in the crowds gathered, and some city councillors boycotted the Princess' events meeting with the Royal Highland Fusiliers as their Colonel-in-Chief.^[38]


At the first meeting of the Constitutional Conference, held in Ottawa in February, 1968, delegates from Quebec indicated that a Provincial President might suit the Province better than a Lieutenant Governor. However, there was overall a feeling that the Monarchy "has served us well and that its reform has no great priority in the present round of constitutional changes."^[39]
References to the Monarch and the Monarchy were slowly removed from the public eye (e.g., the Queen's portrait from public buildings and schools, and the Royal Mail became a crown corporation, Canada Post). The Royal Canadian Navy and Royal Canadian Air Force were merged into the unified Canadian Forces; however, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police remain the national police force. This reached a head in the 1970s with various proposed constitutional changes by the government of Pierre Trudeau, in which the Governor General would be made full Head of State, and renamed "First Canadian," removing any role for the Queen. The premiers of the provinces reacted strongly against these proposals. These moves also led to the creation of the Monarchist League of Canada in defence of Canada's status as a constitutional monarchy.
Trudeau's outward actions led many to believe he harboured republican notions; it was even rumoured by Paul Martin, Sr., that the Queen was worried the Crown "had little meaning for him." This may have had to do with the erasure of royal symbols during his premiership, his documented antics around the Monarch, such as his sliding down Buckingham Palace banisters, and his famous pirouette behind the Queen, captured on film in 1977, the same year that Prince Andrew, the Queen's son, was studying at Lakefield College School in Lakefield, Ontario. Trudeau also glaringly breached protocol in 1978 when he was vacationing in Morocco, instead of in Canada to attend the Queen's arrival and departure. However, he was later accused of instant monarchism, as well as opportunism during a period of personal unpopularity in the 1970s, when he invited Elizabeth II to attend the first Commonwealth Conference held on Canadian soil. The invitation, and acceptance of it, started the tradition of Elizabeth attending Commonwealth conferences, no matter the location. Also, in 1976, after Robert Bourassa, then Premier of Quebec, begged Trudeau to invite the Queen to the Olympics in Montreal, Trudeau, after obliging him, became annoyed when Bourassa later became unsettled about how unpopular the move might be. He commented directly on the Monarchy three years after the ''Samedi de la matraque'', when he, by then a Cabinet minister, stated "I wouldn't lift a finger to get rid of the monarchy... I think the monarchy, by and large, has done more good than harm to Canada." Ultimately, he­ experimented with the Crown more than any previous politician, and then entrenched the role of the Crown in Canada when he orchestrated the patriation of the Canadian Constitution in 1982.^[40]

None-the-less, throughout the decades between the 1960s and the turn of the millennium, it became evident that successive governments, predominantly Liberal, were pushing the Queen out of everyday Canadian life. The 1947 Letters Patent, which were understood to allow the Governor General to act as a regent should such a situation become necessary, were used as justification for moves such as Trudeau's attempt to wrest from the Queen her distinctive right as a sovereign to appoint ambassadors from Canada and then even to issue the personal letters of credence (an act which was completed in 2005). Of the changes made, it was said "the Crown was to be rooted in the future, not in the past; for the historic Crown with its anthem, emblems, and symbolism made accessible a past the government of the day rejected,"^[41] a policy that was never discussed at the various constitutional conferences which began in the 1960s; since the reaction to Trudeau's 1978 constitutional amendments no Canadian government has ever publicly admitted its policy for the Monarchy in Canada.^[42]
Paul Martin, Sr. as well as John Roberts and Mark MacGuigan, who were both sent to the UK in 1980 to discuss the patriation project, noted that during this time the Queen had taken a great and deep interest in the constitutional debate, especially following the failure of Bill C-60, which affected her role as Head of State. They found the Queen "better informed on both the substance and politics of Canada's constitutional case than any of the British politicians or bureaucrats."⁴⁰ That same year, during the Trooping the Colour in 1981 there was an apparent attempt on the Queen's life: six rounds of blanks were fired at her from close range as she rode down The Mall in London. Her only reaction was to duck slightly and then continue on. The Canadian House of Commons was so impressed by her display of courage that a motion was passed praising her composure.^[43]
Canada gained full independence as an autonomous constitutional monarchy when the Constitution was patriated under Prime Minister Trudeau, and Proclaimed by Queen Elizabeth II, in 1982, making it Canadian law rather than an act of the British parliament that required amendment in both jurisdictions. The ''Constitution Act of 1982'' also entrenched the monarchy in Canada. Any change to the position of the monarch or the monarch's representatives in Canada now requires the consent of the Senate, the House of Commons, and the legislative assemblies of all the provinces. Following this occasion, Trudeau commented in his memoirs "I always said it was thanks to three women that we were eventually able to reform our Constitution. ­ The Queen, who was favorable, Margaret Thatcher, who undertook to do everything that our Parliament asked of her, and Jean Wadds, who represented the interests of Canada so well in London... The Queen favoured my attempt to reform the Constitution. I was always impressed not only by the grace she displayed in public at all times, but by the wisdom she showed in private conversation."⁴⁰
However, the terms under which the constitution was patriated were not agreed to by Premiere of Quebec René Lévesque, and the adoption of the changes to the 1867 British North America Act without the consent of the Quebec Legislature was viewed by the sovereigntists as a betrayal, leading to the meeting between the other nine premiers and Prime Minister Trudeau being dubbed as the"Night of the Long Knives." Thus, the Queen, after proclaiming the Constitution Act, and aware that this was the first time in Canadian history that a major constitutional change had been made without the agreement of the Quebec government, tried to demonstrate her position as head of the whole Canadian nation, and her role as conciliator, by privately expressing to journalists her regret that Quebec was not part of the settlement.³⁴
The Queen also oversaw the transfer of many of her duties to her representatives in Canada, and by the early 1970s it was common practice for the Governor General to represent the Queen and Canada abroad on State Visits. There were also instances when the Governor General appeared alongside the Queen at events abroad, though the two had been together at ceremonies in Canada previously.
The Queen returned to Canada in 1990 for a royal tour. This was trip had originally been planned purposefully for the Queen to put her signature to a constitutional amendment, following the Meech Lake Accord. The Accord, however, failed, and there was a general fear for the unity of Canada at the time. On Parliament Hill, on Canada Day, Elizabeth addressed the crowds gathered for celebrations, and stated: "It is my fondest wish for this Canada Day that Canadians come together and remain together rather than dwelling on differences which might further divide them. I and members of my family have been with you on many special days in the life of this country. I particularly recall another fist of July in Canada's centennial year here on Parliament Hill. I said then and I repeat it today that Canada is a country that has been blessed beyond most countries in the world. It is a country worth working for."^[44]
In 1995, during a separatist referendum campaign, the Queen was tricked into speaking, in both French and English, for fourteen minutes with 29-year-old Pierre Brassard, a DJ for Radio CKOI-FM Montreal, pretending to be then Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien. When told that the separatists were showing a lead, the Queen did reveal that she felt the "referendum may go the wrong way," adding, "if I can help in any way, I will be very happy to do so". However, she pointedly refused to accept "Chrétien"s advice that she intervene on the issue without first seeing a draft speech sent by him. (Her tactful handling of the call won plaudits from the DJ who made it.) ^[45]

Monarchy in the New Millennium

The Canadian Monarchy has evolved over time, adapting to each successive generation. In the new millennium the current Royal Family has maintained the strongest ties to Canada in comparison to previous generations of royals. They have travelled to, and attended more events, than any other non-resident royal in Canada's history.
Like many other public figures, the Monarchy's popularity ebbs and flows; its future role in Canada depends as much upon the political elite as it does on public support.
Leading up to the end of 1999, it was leaked from Prime Minister Jean Chrétien's office that there had been a plan for "severing the final ties" with the Monarchy by the turn of the millennium. However, as soon as this was revealed, many denounced the plan, including Chrétien, who said on CTV News that the topic was not a Liberal priority, nor one for average Canadians, admitting "There's no big debate in Canada." A survey of commentary in various sources by the ten provincial premiers at the time revealed one in favour of a republic (Newfoundland), one abstaining from comment (Quebec), and the remaining eight in support of Canada's Monarchy. The ''Ottawa Citizen's headline read: "Which millennium"?^[46]

One group, Citizens for a Canadian Republic, formed in 2002 to promote the changing of Canada from a kingdom to a republic, though debate on this matter is now minimal.
In October of the same year the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh undertook a twelve day tour across Canada to celebrate the Queen's Golden Jubilee. It was during this trip that Elizabeth II opened the new Legislative Assembly of Nunavut, dropped a ceremonial puck at the beginning of an NHL game in Vancouver, watched performances at Roy Thomson Hall by Oscar Peterson, Rex Harrington, Cirque du Soleil, The Tragically Hip, and others, and attended a luncheon at Rideau Hall for fifty of Canada's greatest citizens; one from each year of the Queen's reign. Thousands turned out to various events; only approximately 100 Québécois protesters were seen when the Royal motorcade crossed from Ottawa into Gatineau, Quebec, the only Quebec destination on the tour.^[47] Just prior to the Queen's arrival, former Deputy Prime Minister John Manley expressed in an interview his belief that Canada should become a republic upon the Queen's demise. His comments were widely met with disapproval. Provincial premiers publicly stated their support for the Monarchy, save for Quebec Premier Bernard Landry who stated Quebec would boycott any celebrations of the Queen's Jubilee in protest of her signing of the Constitution Act, 1982.^[48]
Governor General Adrienne Clarkson issued a Royal Proclamation on July 28, 2003, indicating the Crown's acknowledgement of the deportation of Acadians in 1754, and establishing the date as a "Day of Commemoration of the Great Upheaval."
Beginning January 1, 2005, the Letters of Credence that foreign diplomats present when beginning an assignment in Canada are addressed to the Governor General of Canada without making any reference to the Queen. This is also the case with Letters of Recall presented when a diplomat finishes a sojourn in Canada. This change in protocol has been criticised by Canadian monarchists as an example of the government reducing the Queen's role, and has been welcomed by republicans for the same reason.
Some monarchists contend that after Paul Martin became prime minister, his government seemed to be attempting to further distance Canada from the Queen and elevating the Governor General to more of a presidential figure.
In 2005 the Queen and Duke of Edinburgh traveled to Alberta and Saskatchewan to celebrate their centennials. During this tour the government of Alberta wished to have the Queen sign a provincial bill into law. This was not done – in theory because the constitutionality of the Queen doing so was questioned; however, Rideau Hall also stated it would conflict with the federal government's policy of the "Canadianization" of Canada's institutions. It remains to be seen how the change to a new Conservative federal government will affect such policies.
In 2006, in his first address to Parliament as Prime Minister, Stephen Harper opened by paying tribute to the Queen and her "lifelong dedication to duty and self-sacrifice," referring to her specifically as Canada's Head of State,^[49] in contrast to the previous government which had referred to the Governor General as holding that position. Harper later commented on Canada and Australia sharing "an enduring affinity to the Crown" in a speech introducing Australian Prime Minister John Howard, before the latter addressed a joint session of the Canadian Parliament on 18 May, 2006, and later, in what was dubbed by ''Toronto Star'' journalist Graham Fraser as "one of the most monarchist speeches a Canadian prime minister has given since John Diefenbaker," Harper stated before the Canada-UK Chamber of Commerce that Canada and the United Kingdom were joined by "the golden circle of the Crown, which links us all together with the majestic past that takes us back to the Tudors, the Plantagenets, the Magna Carta, habeas corpus, petition of rights, and English common law."^[50][51]
The following year it was reported that Prince Henry, third in line to the Canadian Throne, had arrived in Canada to train, along with other soldiers of the Canadian and British Armies, at CFB Suffield, near Medicine Hat, Alberta, for a tour of duty in Afghanistan;^[52][53] the ''Calgary Sun'' front page headline reading: "Wild about Harry!"^[54] At the same time, another member of the Canadian Royal Family, Harry's aunt the Princess Royal, was in Saskatchewan undertaking duties as Colonel-in-Chief of Royal Regina Rifels, marking their centennial, as well as to open the Royal Canadian Mounted Police Heritage Centre.^[55]

Monarchs of Canadian territories

A list of monarchs of New France, British North America and Canada:

New France (including territory of Canada) 1534-1764 Upper & Lower Canada 1764-1867 Canada 1867-present House of Capet (Bourbon and Valois) House of Hanover Houses of Hanover, Saxe-Coburg & Gotha, and Windsor Francis I of France 1534–47: established French colonies in Acadia and Canada, 1534 Henry II of France 1547–59 Francis II of France 1559–60 Charles IX of France 1560–74 Henry III of France 1574–89 Henry IV of France 1589–1610 Louis XIII of France 1610–43 Louis XIV of France 1643–1715: Ceded Acadia, Placentia, and Hudson Bay to Anne, 1713 Louis XV of France 1715–63: Ceded New France to George III, 1763 George III of the United Kingdom 1760–1820: Created provinces of Upper Canada and Lower Canada, 1790 George IV of the United Kingdom 1820–30 William IV of the United Kingdom 1830–37: Served in Canada as part of a naval contingent, 1786–7 Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom 1837–1901: Signed British North America Act, 1867 and proclaimed Ottawa as Canada's Capital city. Edward VII of the United Kingdom 1901–10 George V of the United Kingdom 1910–31 and the Dominion of Canada 1931-36: Signed Statute of Westminster, 1931 Edward VIII of the United Kingdom and the Dominion of Canada 1936: Maintained a private ranch in Canada George VI of the United Kingdom and the Dominion of Canada 1936–52: First reigning monarch to enter Canada. Coined the phrase "King of Canada" Elizabeth II of Canada 1952–pres.: First to be officially titled separately as Queen of Canada[56]

See also

★ Monarchy in Canada

★ History of Monarchy in British Columbia

★ History of Monarchy in Newfoundland and Labrador

★ History of Monarchy in Nova Scotia

★ History of Monarchy in Ontario

★ History of Monarchy in Quebec

★ History of Monarchy in Saskatchewan

★ Royal tours of Canada

★ List of Canadian monarchs

External links

★ Video of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth in Canada, 1939

★ Video of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip in Canada, 2002

Footnotes

1. Department of Canadian Heritage: ''The Crown in Canada''
2. Canada: History
3. Ferguson, Will; ''The Lost Kingdom''; ''Macleans'', October 27, 2003
4. Kehoe, Alice Beck; ''First Nations History''; October, 2001
5. The Four Indian Kings
6. Makarenko, Jay; Maple Leaf Web: The Monarchy in Canada
7. Monet, Jacques; ''Canadian Monarchist News'': Crown and Country; Summer, 2007
8. Hubbard, R.H.; ‘’Rideau Hall’’; McGill-Queen’s University Press; Montreal and London; 1977; Pg. x
9. Hall, Trevor; ''Royal Canada: A History of Royal Visits for Canada Since 1786
10. Hall, Tony; ''Canadian Forum Magazine'': The politics of monarchy: it's not what you might expect; April, 1998
11. Hubbard; p. 9
12. ''How Canadians Govern Themselves'' (PDF), pp. 8-9; Canadian Heritage: National Flag of Canada Day – see Canada's name
13. Hubbard; p. 17
14. Hubbard; p. 55, 59
15. Hibbard; p. 82
16. Buchan, John; ''Lord Minto: A Memoir''; T. Nelson and Sons; London, New York; 1924
17. Official Report of the Debates of the House of Commons of the Dominion of Canada; 1 Edward VII, 1901, (Hansard)
18. Arthur, Sir George; ''Queen Mary''; Thornton Butterworth; London, 1935
19. Hibbard; p. 125
20. Quebec History: The King-Byng Affair
21. Balfour Declaration 1926 (Imperial Conference)
22. Quebec History: The Statute of Westminster, 1931
23. ''War of the Windsors: A Century of Unconstitutional Monarchy''; Picknett, Lynn, Prince, Clive, Prior, Stephen & Brydon, Robert; Mainstream Publishing, 2002; p.37
24. Hubbard; p. 187
25. O'Donohue v. Her Majesty The Queen in Right of Canada
26. Smith, Janet Adam; ''John Buchanan, a Biography; London, 1965; p. 423
27. ''Time'': Roya Visit; October 21, 1957
28. Galbraith, William; ''Canadian Parliamentary Review'': Fiftieth Anniversary of the 1939 Royal Visit; Vol. 12, No. 3, 1989
29. Hubbard; p. 191
30. The Royal Tour of 1939
31. ''Diary of Mackenzie King''; May 17, 1939
32. CBC: Royal Visits to Canada
33. Office of the Lieutenant Governor: Speech by Iona Campolo, Retired Heads of Mission Association's Gala Dinner, Royal Roads University, Hatley Castle, Victoria, BC, February 5, 2007
34. The Canadian Royal Heritage Trust: Elizabeth II, Queen of Canada
35. National Gallery of Australia: By Appointment: Norman Hartnell's sample for the Coronation dress of Queen Elizabeth II
36. Department of Canadian Heritage: Test your royal skills
37. CBC Archives: Truncheon Saturday
38. Dalton, Melinda; ''The Record'': Royal visit sparks memories; May 4, 2007
39. Speech by Governor General Roland Michener, Nov. 19, 1970
40. Heinricks, Geoff; ''Canadian Monarchist News'': Trudeau and the Monarchy; Winter/Spring, 2000-01; reprinted from the ''National Post''
41. Smith, David E.; ''The Invisible Crown''; University of Toronto Press; p. 47
42. Toporoski, Richard; ''Monarchy Canada'': The Invisible Crown; 1998
43. Canadian Royal Heritage Trust: ''Courage of the Queen''
44. CBC: Royal Visits to Canada
45. ''A Queen Canada Should be Proud Of''
46. Premiers Nix Monarchy Abolition: "NOT A GOVERNMENT PROJECT AT THIS POINT"
47. The Queen's Golden Jubilee: A CBC Big Picture
48. Dr. Phillips, Stephen; ''Canadian Monarchist News'', Republicanism in Canada in the Reign of Elizabeth II: the Dog that Didn't Bark; Summer, 2004
49. 39th Parliament, First Session, Edited Hansard, No. 003, Wednesday, April 5, 2006
50. Prime Minister Harper introduces Australian counterpart to Parliament
51. Fraser, Graham; ''Toronto Star'', PM shucks Reform roots for a royal connection; August 19, 2006
52. Canadian Press; CTV News: ''Prince Harry may be training in Alberta: reports''; June 2, 2007
53. Kennedy, Sarah; Fernandez, Pablo; Gilchrist, Emma; Sun Media: ''Prince Harry training in Alberta''; June 2, 2007
54. Harding, Katherine; ''Globe and Mail'': Harry spotters hard at it in Alberta; June 4, 2007
55. CTV News: ''Princess Anne helps mark regimental centennial''; June 2, 2007
56. 1