'Honey' is a sweet and
viscous fluid produced by
honey bees, and derived from the
nectar of
flowers. According to the
United States National Honey Board and various international food regulations, "honey stipulates a pure product that does not allow for the addition of any other substance...this includes, but is not limited to, water or other
sweeteners". This article refers exclusively to the honey produced by
honey bees (the genus ''Apis''); honey produced by other bees or other insects has very different properties.
[1]
Honey is significantly
sweeter than table
sugar and has attractive chemical properties for baking.
[2] Honey has a distinctive flavor which leads some people to prefer it over sugar and other sweeteners.
Most microorganisms do not grow in honey because of its low
water activity of 0.6
[3]. However, it is important to note that honey frequently contains dormant endospores of the bacteria ''
Clostridium botulinum'', which can be dangerous to infants as the endospores can transform into toxin-producing bacteria in the infant's immature intestinal tract, leading to illness and even death
[4] (See "Precautions" below).
The study of
pollens and
spores in raw honey (
melissopalynology) can determine floral sources of honey
[5]. Because bees carry an
electrostatic charge, and can attract other particles, the same techniques of melissopalynology can be used in area environmental studies of
radioactive particles,
dust, or particulate
pollution[6][7].
A main effect of bees collecting nectar to make honey is
pollination, which is crucial for
flowering plants
[8].
The beekeeper encourages overproduction of honey within the hive so that the excess can be taken without endangering the bees. When sources of foods for the bees are short the beekeeper may have to give the bees supplementary nutrition
[9].
Honey formation
Honey is laid down by bees as a food source. In cold weather or when food sources are scarce, bees use their stored honey as their source of energy
[10]. By contriving for the bee
swarm to make its home in a
hive, people have been able to semi-
domesticate the insects. In the hive there are three types of bee: the single
queen bee, a seasonally variable number of
drone bees to fertilize new queens, and some 20,000 to 40,000
worker bees
[11]. The worker bees raise larvae and collect the nectar that will become honey in the hive. They go out, collect the sugar-rich flower nectar and return to the hive. As they leave the flower, bees release
Nasonov pheromones. These enable other bees to find their way to the site by smell
[12]. Honeybees also release Nasonov pheromones at the entrance to the hive, which enables returning bees to return to the proper hive
. In the hive the bees use their "honey stomachs" to ingest and
regurgitate the nectar a number of times until it is partially digested
[13]. It is then stored in the
honeycomb. Nectar is high in both water content and natural yeasts which, unchecked, would cause the sugars in the nectar to ferment
. After the final regurgitation, the honeycomb is left unsealed. Bees inside the hive fan their wings, creating a strong draft across the honeycomb which enhances
evaporation of much of the
water from the nectar
. The reduction in water content, which raises the sugar concentration, prevents
fermentation. Ripe honey, as removed from the hive by the
beekeeper, has a long shelf life and will not ferment
.
Nutrition
Honey is a mixture of sugars and other compounds. With respect to carbohydrates, honey is mainly
fructose (about 38.5%) and
glucose (about 31.0%)
. The remaining carbohydrates include
maltose,
sucrose, and other
complex carbohydrates.
Honey contains trace amounts of several
vitamins and
minerals[14]. As with all nutritive sweeteners, honey is mostly sugars and is not a significant source of vitamins or minerals
[15].
Honey also contains tiny amounts of several compounds thought to function as
antioxidants, including
chrysin,
pinobanksin,
vitamin C,
catalase, and
pinocembrin[16][17].
The specific composition of any batch of honey will depend largely on the mix of flowers available to the bees that produced the honey.
Honey has a
density of about 1.4
kg/
liter (40% denser than
water)
[18].
;Typical honey analysis
★
Fructose: 38%
★
Glucose: 31%
★
Sucrose: 1%
★
Water: 17%
★ Other sugars: 9% (
maltose,
melezitose)
★
Ash: 0.17%
The analysis of the sugar content of honey is used for detecting
adulteration.
Types of honey
Blended
Most commercially available honey is blended, meaning that it is a mixture of two or more honeys differing in floral source, color, flavor, density or geographic origin.
Polyfloral
Polyfloral honey is derived from the nectar of many types of flowers.
Monofloral
Main articles: Monofloral honey
Different monofloral honeys have a distinctive flavor and colour due to differences between their principal
nectar sources. Beekeepers keep monofloral beehives in an area where the bees have access to only one type of flower, because of that flower's properties. In practice, because of the difficulties in containing bees, a small proportion of any honey will be from additional nectar from other flower types.
Honeydew Honey
Instead of taking nectar, bees can take
honeydew, the sweet secretions of
aphids or other plant sap-sucking insects. Bees collecting this resource have to be fed protein supplements, as honeydew lacks the protein-rich pollen accompaniment gathered from flowers.
Germany's
Black Forest is a well known source of honeydew-based honeys. Honeydew honey is popular in some areas, but in many areas beekeepers have difficulty selling the stronger flavored product.
Honeydew honey has a much larger proportion of indigestibles than light floral honeys, which can cause
dysentery, resulting in the death of colonies in areas with cold winters. Good beekeeping management requires the removal of honeydew prior to winter in colder areas.
Honey processing
★ '
Comb honey' Honey sold still in the original bees' wax comb. Comb honey was once packaged by installing a wooden framework in special
honey supers, but this labor intensive method is being replaced by plastic rings or cartridges. With the new approach, a clear cover is usually fitted onto the cartridge after removal from the hive so customers can see the product.
★ 'Certified Organic Honey', according to the
USDA, organic honey is quite rare to find due to the fact that most beekeepers "routinely use sulfa compounds and antibiotics to control bee diseases, carbolic acid to remove honey from the hive and calcium cyanide to kill colonies before extracting the honey, not to mention that conventional honeybees gather nectar from plants that have been sprayed with pesticides."
★ 'Raw honey' Honey as it exists in the beehive or as obtained by extraction, settling or straining without adding heat above 120 degrees fahrenheit. Raw honey contains some pollen and may contain small particles of wax. Local raw honey is sought after by
allergy sufferers as the pollen impurities are thought to lessen the sensitivity to
hay fever (see
Medical Applications below).
★ 'Chunk honey' Honey packed in widemouth containers consisting of one or more pieces of comb honey surrounded by extracted liquid honey.
★ 'Strained honey' or 'filtered honey' Honey which has been passed through a mesh material to remove particulate material (pieces of wax,
propolis, other defects) without removing pollen. Preferred by the health food trade - it may have a cloudy appearance due to the included pollen, and it also tends to crystallize more quickly than ultrafiltered honey.
★ 'Ultrafiltered honey' Honey processed by very fine filtration under high pressure to remove all extraneous solids and pollen grains. The process typically heats honey to 150-170 degrees to more easily pass through the fine filter. Ultrafiltered honey is very clear and has a longer shelf life, because it crystallizes more slowly due to the high temperatures breaking down any sugar seed crystals, making it preferred by the supermarket trade. Ultrafiltration eliminates nutrionally valuable enzymes, such as diastase and invertase.
★ 'Heat-Treated honey' Heat-treatment after extraction reduces the moisture level and destroys yeast cells. Heating liquefies crystals in the honey, too. Heat-exposure does also result in product deterioration, as it increases the level of hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) and reduces enzyme (e.g. diastase) activity. The heat does also affect sensory qualities and reduces the freshness. Heat processing can darken the natural honey color (browning), too.
[1]
★ 'Ultrasonicated honey' Ultrasonication is a non-thermal processing alternative for honey. When honey is exposed to ultrasonication, most of the yeast cells are destroyed. Yeast cells that survive sonication generally lose their ability to grow. This reduces the rate of honey fermentation substantially. Ultrasonication does also eliminate existing crystals and inhibit further crystallization in honey. Ultrasonically aided liquefaction can work at substantially lower temperatures of approx. 35 °C and can reduce liquefaction time to less than 30 seconds.
[2]
Other descriptions
★ 'Churned honey' or 'creamed honey' See
whipped honey.
★ 'Crystallized honey' Honey in which some of the glucose content has spontaneously crystallized from solution as the monohydrate. Also called "granulated honey."
★ 'Honey fondant' See
whipped honey.
★ 'Organic honey' is honey produced, processed, and packaged in accordance with national regulations, and certified as such by some government body or an independent organic farming certification organization. For example, in the
United Kingdom, the standard covers not only the origin of bees, but also the siting of the apiaries. These must be on land that is certified as organic, and within a radius of 4 miles from the apiary site, nectar and pollen sources must consist essentially of organic crops or uncultivated areas
[3].
★ 'Set honey' All honey will eventually set or granulate and this process can be reversed by gently warming the honey to remelt it. Some honeys set naturally with large granules and taste a little like granulated sugar in honey. Others set like
royal icing - very hard and unspreadable. To overcome this problem beekeepers will mix in a small amount of fine-grained honey before it sets and then gently stir the honey to fix the setting prematurely, before it becomes hard, thereby producing a "soft set" honey.
★ 'Spun honey' See
whipped honey.
Honey in history, culture and folklore
In many cultures, honey has associations that go far beyond its use as a food. In language and literature, religion and folk belief, honey is frequently a symbol or talisman for sweetness of every kind.
Honey collection
Honey collection by humans is an ancient activity. Bee Wilson (2004) states that humans began hunting for honey at least 10,000 years ago. Bee Wilson (2004: p.5) evidences this with a depiction a line drawing of a
Mesolithic rock painting showing two honey-hunters collecting honey and honeycomb from a wild nest. The two men are naked and employ a long wobbly
ladder which appears to be made out of a kind of grass in order to reach the wild nest. Both men carry baskets or bags. This rock painting is on a wall in a cave in
Valencia,
Spain.
Biblical Period
The
Old Testament contains many references to honey as a symbol for all that is pleasant and desirable. For example, the book of
Exodus famously describes the
Promised Land as a 'land flowing with
milk and honey' (33:3). There, however, the Hebrew ''devash'' refers to the sweet syrup produced from the juice of the date. In contrast, bees' honey is referred to explicitly in
The Book of Judges when Samson found a swarm of bees and honey in the carcass of a lion (14:8). John the Baptist lived for a long period of time in the wilderness on a diet consisting of locusts and wild honey. The word "honey" appears 61 times in the
King James Version of the
Bible.
In Jewish tradition, honey is also a symbol for the new year –
Rosh Hashana. At the traditional meal for that holiday, apple slices are dipped into honey and eaten to bring a sweet new year. New Year's greetings for
Rosh Hashana very often show honey and an apple, symbolizing the feast. In many congregations, small, plastic straws of honey are given out to usher in the new year.
Asian region
Honey plays an important role in the festival of
Modhu Purnima, celebrated by
Buddhists in
India and
Bangladesh. The day commemorates
Buddha's making peace among his disciples by retreating into the wilderness. The story goes that while he was there, a
monkey brought him honey to eat. On
Modhu Purnima, Buddhists remember this act by giving honey to
monks. The monkey's gift is frequently depicted in
Buddhist art.
Mediterranean region
During the
Roman Empire, honey was used instead of
gold to pay
taxes. Even earlier, in the accounts of the Ancient
Egyptian Pharaoh Seti I, one hundred pots of honey were equivalent in value to an
ass or an
ox.
In some parts of
Greece, it was formerly the custom for a
bride to dip her fingers in honey and make the
sign of the cross before entering her new home. This was meant to ensure sweetness in her married life, especially in her relationship with her
mother-in-law.
In ancient history, the
Ancient Egyptian and
Middle-Eastern peoples also used honey for
embalming the dead.
[19] However, only rich and powerful people had the luxury of this type of funeral. Scythians, and later the other Central Asian nomadic people, for many months drove a wagon with a deceased ruler around the country in their last rites mourning procession, carrying the body in a casket filled with honey.
After his death in battle, the head of
Vlad III Ţepeş (of later
Dracula fame) was cut off and presented to the Sultan of Turkey, preserved in a jar of honey.
Western culture
In
Western culture,
bears are depicted as eating honey, even though most bears actually eat a wide variety of foods, and bears seen at beehives are usually more interested in bee larvae than honey.
[20] Honey is sometimes sold in a bear-shaped
jar.
Teddy bears are associated with honey, possibly because of the influence of
Winnie-the-Pooh.
"Honey," along with variations like "honey bun" and "honeypot" and the abbreviation "hon," has become a term of endearment in most of the English-speaking world. In some places it is used for loved ones; in others, such as the
American South, it is used when addressing casual acquaintances or even strangers.
Islamic tradition
The
Qur'an mentions rivers of honey in paradise.
[21]"And thy Lord taught the bee to build its cells in hills, on trees and in (men's) habitations...there issues from within their bodies a drink of varying colours, wherein is healing for mankind. Verily in this is a Sign for those who give thought".[22]
There is entire Sora in Qur'an called (the Bees) alnahl. According to the
hadith of
Bukhari,
Muhammad liked honey and other sweet things.
[23] Prophet Mohammed strongly recommend honey for healing purposes.
Modern use of honey
Honey output in 2005
In 2005, China, Turkey and the US were the top producers of natural honey, reports the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
[24]
The main uses of honey are in
cooking, baking, as a spread on
breads, and as an addition to various beverages such as
tea and as a sweetener in commercial beverages such as
Sprecher's
root beer. Because honey is
hygroscopic (drawing moisture from the air), a small quantity of honey added to a pastry recipe will retard staling. Raw honey also contains
enzymes that help in its
digestion, several
vitamins and
antioxidants.
Honey is the main ingredient in the alcoholic beverage
mead, which is also known as "honey wine" or "honey beer" (although it is neither
wine nor
beer). It is also used as an
adjunct in
beer. Beer brewed with more than 30% honey as a source of sugar by weight, or mead brewed with
malt (with or without
hops), is known as braggot.
Its
glycemic index ranges from 31 to 78 depending on the variety. (http://www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/HBE/05-027.pdf)
Ethical concerns
Some
vegetarians and
vegans avoid using honey because it is an
animal product, instead choosing sweetening alternatives such as
sugar,
maple syrup,
agave nectar,
rice syrup,
dried fruit or
stevia.
[4] Bees are often killed and hurt due to the human manipulation of beekeeping for industrial production.
[5]
Medicinal uses and health effects of honey
For at least 2700 years, honey has been used to treat a variety of ailments through topical application, but only recently have the antiseptic and antibacterial properties of honey been chemically explained. As an antimicrobial agent honey may have the potential for treating a variety of ailments. One New Zealand researcher says a particular type of honey may be useful in treating
MRSA.
[25] Antibacterial properties of honey are the result of the low
water activity causing osmosis,
hydrogen peroxide effect,
[26] and high acidity.
[27]
Osmotic effect
Honey is primarily a saturated mixture of two monosaccharides. This mixture has a low water activity; most of the water molecules are associated with the sugars and few remain available for microorganisms, so it is a poor environment for their growth.
Anti-oxidants
A study found that certain anti-oxidants and vitamins are found in honey in concentrations similar to those in some fruits and vegetables
[6][7][8].
Hydrogen peroxide
Hydrogen peroxide in honey is activated by dilution. However, unlike medical hydrogen peroxide, commonly 3% by volume, it is present in a concentration of only 1 mmol/l in honey. Iron in honey oxidizes the oxygen
free radicals released by the hydrogen peroxide.
:glucose + H
2O + O
2 → gluconic acid + H
2O
2
When used topically (as, for example, a wound dressing), hydrogen peroxide is produced by dilution with body fluids. As a result, hydrogen peroxide is released slowly and acts as an antiseptic.
In diabetic ulcers
Topical honey has been used successfully in a comprehensive treatment of diabetic ulcers when the patient cannot use other topical antibiotics.
[28]
Acidity
The pH of honey is commonly between 3.2 and 4.5.
This relatively acidic pH level prevents the growth of many bacteria.
Nutraceutical effects
According to recent findings, honey may have some significant
nutraceutical effects (or positive long-term health effects resulting from honey's consumption). In addition to its primary carbohydrate content, honey often contains
polyphenols, which can act as
antioxidants.
[29] Antioxidants in honey have even been implicated in reducing the damage done to the colon in
colitis.
[30] Furthermore, some studies suggest that honey may be effective in increasing the populations of
probiotic bacteria in the gut, which may help strengthen the immune system, improve digestion, lower cholesterol
[31][32][33] and prevent colon cancer.
[34]
Such claims are consistent with its use in many traditions of
folk medicine.
[35]
Other medical applications
Some studies suggest that the topical use of honey may reduce odors, swelling, and scarring when used to treat wounds; it may also prevent the dressing from sticking to the healing wound.
Honey has been shown to be an effective treatment for
conjunctivitis in rats.
[36]
Honey (especially when combined with lemon) is often taken orally by
pharyngitis and
laryngitis sufferers, in order to soothe them.
Though widely believed to alleviate allergies, local honey has been shown to be no more effective than placebos in controlled studies.
[29] This may be due to the fact that most seasonal allergies are caused by tree and grass pollens, which honeybees do not collect.
Precautions
Due to the natural presence of
botulinum endospores in honey, children under one year of age should not be given honey. The more developed digestive systems of older children and adults generally destroy the spores. Infants, however, can contract
botulism from honey.
[38]
Honey produced from the flowers of
rhododendrons,
mountain laurels,
sheep laurel and
azaleas may cause Honey Intoxication. Symptoms include dizziness, weakness, excessive perspiration, nausea and vomiting. Less commonly, low blood pressure, shock, heart rhythm irregularities and convulsions may occur, with rare cases resulting in death. Honey Intoxication is more likely when using "natural" unprocessed honey and honey from farmers who may have a small number of hives. Commercial processing, with pooling of honey from numerous sources generally dilutes any toxins.
[39]
Toxic honey may also result when bees are in close proximity to tutu bushes (''
Coriaria arborea'') and the vine hopper insect (''
Scolypopa australis''). Both are found throughout New Zealand. Bees gather honeydew produced by the vine hopper insects feeding on the tutu plant. This introduces the poison tutin into honey. Only a few areas in New Zealand (Coromandel Peninsula, Eastern Bay of Plenty and the Marlborough Sound) frequently produce toxic honey. Symptoms of tutin poisoning include vomiting, delirium, giddiness, increased excitability, stupor, coma and violent convulsions. As little as one teaspoon of toxic honey may produce severe effects in humans. In order to reduce the risk of tutin poisoning, humans should not eat honey taken from feral hives in the risk areas of New Zealand. Since December
2001, New Zealand beekeepers have been required to reduce the risk of producing toxic honey by closely monitoring tutu, vine hopper, and foraging conditions within 3 km of their apiary.
Images of harvesting honey
See also
★
Royal jelly
★
Nectar
★
Folk medicine
★
Bee bread
★
Pitcairn Island honey
★
Honey flow
External links
★
U.S. National Honey Board
Notes
1. NOSB Apiculture Task Force Report Draft Organic Apiculture Standards, Compiled by James A. Riddle, ATF Chair, September 15, 2001, Addendum I: Definition of Honey and Honey Products
2. National Honey Board. "Carbohydrates and the Sweetness of Honey". Last accessed April 13, 2007. http://www.honey.com/downloads/carb.pdf
3. Microbiology, Lansing Prescott, John P. Harley, Donald A. Klein, , , WCB/McGraw-Hill, 1999,
4.
5. Vaughn M. Bryant, Jr. "Pollen Contents of Honey". CAP Newsletter 24(1):10-24, 2001.
6. Melissopalynological analysis applied to air pollution studies in urban areas of Modena and Reggio Emilia (Italy), Mercuri AM, Porrini C., , , Aerobiologia, 1991
7. Honey bees and their products as indicators of environmental radioactive pollution, Tonelli D, Gattavecchia E, Ghini S, Porrini C, Celli G, Mercuri AM., , , Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 1990
8. Pollination Background. University of Georgia Honey Bee Program. Last accessed April 14, 2007. http://www.ent.uga.edu/bees/Pollination/Background.htm
9. Doug Somerville. "Honey bee nutrition and supplementary feeding." Agnote:DAI/178, July 2000. New South Wales Department of Agriculture. http://www.agric.nsw.gov.au/reader/3271
10. National Honey Board. "Honey and Bees." Last accessed April 14, 2007. http://www.honey.com/consumers/kids/beefacts.asp
11. Val Whitmyre. "The Plight of the Honeybees." University of California. Last accessed April 14, 2007. http://groups.ucanr.org/mgnapa/Articles/Honeybees.htm
12. Roger Hoopingarner. B-Plus: Beekeeping Report from Michigan State University. No. 18 Spring-Summer, 1990. cyberbee.net/Archive/bplus/pdf/bplus18.pdf
13. Standifer LN. "Honey Bee Nutrition And Supplemental Feeding". Excerpted from "Beekeeping in the United States." Last accessed April 14, 2007. http://maarec.cas.psu.edu/bkCD/HBBiology/nutrition_supplements.htm
14. USDA Nutrient Data Laboratory "Honey." Last accessed August 24, 2007. http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/
15.
16. Identification of flavonoid markers for the botanical origin of Eucalyptus honey, Martos I, Ferreres F, Tomás-Barberán F, , , J Agric Food Chem, 2000
17. Identification and quantification of antioxidant components of honeys from various floral sources, Gheldof N, Wang X, Engeseth N, , , J Agric Food Chem, 2002
18. Value-Added Products from Beekeeping (Fao Agricultural Services Bulletin), Rainer Krell,, , , Food & Agriculture Organization of the UN (FA, ,
19. Larry Gonick The Cartoon History of the Universe Vol.2
20. The American Bear Association
21. Qur'an 47:15
22. Translation of Quran 16:68-69
23. Sahih Bukhari vol. 7, book 69, number 504 and 518.
24. FAO.org
25.
26. Causes of the antimicrobial activity of honey, Wahdan H, , , Infection,
27.
28. Jennifer Eddy of UW Health's Eau Claire Family Medicine Clinic, "UW STUDY TESTS TOPICAL HONEY AS A TREATMENT FOR DIABETIC ULCERS", University of Wisconsin-Madison, 5/2/07
29.
30.
Could Honey Have a Place in Colitis Therapy, , Y., Bilsel, Digestive Surgery,
31.
32.
33.
34. Honey carbohydrates have prebiotic properties
35. Honey for the treatment of infections, , Peter C., Molan, The New Zealand Beekeeper,
36. Investigating the antimicrobial activity of natural honey and its effects on the pathogenic bacterial infections of surgical wounds and conjunctiva, , N.S., Al-Waili, Journal of medicinal food,
37.
38. National Honey Board Fact Sheet. "Infant Botulism."
39. FDA Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition's Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook."Grayanotoxin"
References
★ Wilson, Bee (2004). ''The Hive: The Story Of The Honeybee''. London, Great Britain: John Murray (Publishers). ISBN 0 7195 6598 7
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