:
:
'Indian Wars' is the name generally used in the
United States to describe a series of conflicts between the colonial and federal government and the indigenous peoples. Although the very first British settlements of the 1610's and 1620's in the Americas were often peaceful, as early as the
Pequot War of 1637 the colonists were taking sides in military rivalries between Indian nations in order to assure colonial security and open further land for settlement. The wars, which ranged from the Seventeenth Century (
King Philip's War,
King William's War, and
Queen Anne's War at the opening of the Eighteenth Century) to the
Wounded Knee massacre and
"closing" of the American frontier in 1890, generally resulted in the opening of Native American lands to further colonization, the conquest of American Indians and their
assimilation, or
forced relocation to
Indian reservations. Various statistics have been developed concerning the devastations of these wars on both the American and Indian nations. The most reliable figures are derived from collated records of strictly military engagements such as by Gregory Michno which reveal 21,586 dead, wounded, and captured civilians and soldiers for the period of 1850-1890 alone.
[1] Other figures are derived from extrapolations of rather cursory and unrelated government accounts such as that by Russell Thornton who calculated that some 45,000 Indians and 19,000 whites were killed. This later rough estimate includes women and children on both sides, since
noncombatants were often killed in frontier
massacres.
[2] Various other authors have claimed as low as 5,000 killed to as high as 500,000 killed. What is not disputed is that the savagery from both sides of the war -- the Indians' own methods of brutal warfare and the Americans destructive campaigns-- was such as to be noted in every year in newspapers, historical archives, diplomatic reports and America’s own
Declaration of Independence. ("...[He] has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.")
The Indian Wars comprised a series of smaller wars. American Indians were (and remain) diverse peoples with their own histories; throughout the wars, they were not a single people any more than Europeans were. Living in societies organized in a variety of ways, American Indians usually made decisions about war and peace at the local level, though they sometimes fought as part of formal alliances, such as the
Iroquois Confederation, or in temporary confederacies inspired by leaders such as
Tecumseh.
East of the Mississippi (1775–1842)
These are wars fought by Native Americans primarily against the newly established United States until shortly before the
Mexican-American War.
American Revolutionary War
Main articles: Western theater of the American Revolutionary War
The
American Revolutionary War was essentially two parallel wars: while the war in the East was a struggle against British rule, the war in the West was an "Indian War". The newly proclaimed United States competed with the British for the allegiance of Native American nations east of the
Mississippi River. The colonial interest in westward settlement, as opposed to the British policy of maintaining peace, was one of the minor causes of the war. Most Native Americans who joined the struggle sided with the British, hoping to use the war to halt colonial expansion onto American Indian land. The Revolutionary War was "the most extensive and destructive" Indian war in United States history.
[3]
Many native communities were divided over which side to support in the war. For the
Iroquois Confederacy, the American Revolution resulted in civil war.
Cherokees split into a neutral (or pro-U.S.) faction and the anti-U.S. faction that the Americans referred to as the
Chickamaugas, led by
Dragging Canoe. Many other communities were similarly divided.
Frontier warfare was particularly brutal, and numerous atrocities were committed on both sides. Both Euro-American and Native American noncombatants suffered greatly during the war, and villages and food supplies were frequently destroyed during military expeditions. The largest of these expeditions was the
Sullivan Expedition of 1779, which destroyed more than 40 Iroquois villages in order to neutralize Iroquois raids in
upstate New York. The expedition failed to have the desired effect: American Indian activity became even more determined.
Native Americans were stunned to learn that, when the British made peace with the Americans in the
Treaty of Paris (1783), they had ceded a vast amount of American Indian territory to the United States without informing their Indian allies. The United States initially treated the American Indians who had fought with the British as a conquered people who had lost their land. When this proved impossible to enforce (the Indians had lost the war on paper, not on the battlefield), the policy was abandoned. The United States was eager to expand, and the national government initially sought to do so only by purchasing Native American land in treaties. The states and settlers were frequently at odds with this policy, and more warfare followed.
Chickamauga Wars
Main articles: Chickamauga Wars
These were an almost continuous series of frontier conflicts that began with Cherokee involvement in the American Revolutionary War and continued until late 1794. The so-called Chickamauga were those Cherokee, at first from the Overhill Towns and later from the Lower Towns, Valley Towns, and Middle Towns, who followed the war leader Dragging Canoe southwest, first to the Chickamauga (
Chattanooga, Tennessee) area, then to the Five Lower Towns. There they were joined by groups of
Muskogee, white
Tories, runaway slaves, and renegade
Chickasaw, as well as well over one hundred
Shawnee, in exchange for whom a hundred Chickamauga-Cherokee warriors went north, along with another seventy a few years later. The primary objects of attack were the colonies along the
Watauga,
Holston, and
Nolichucky rivers and in Carter's Valley in upper
East Tennessee, as well as the settlements along the
Cumberland River beginning with
Fort Nashborough in 1780, even into
Kentucky, plus against the colonies, later states, of
Virginia,
North Carolina,
South Carolina, and
Georgia. The scope of attacks by the "Chickamauga" and their allies ranged from quick raids by small war parties of a handfull of warriors to large campaigns by four or five hundred, and once over a thousand, warriors. The Upper Muskogee under Dragging's Canoe's close ally Alexander McGillivray frequently joined their campaigns as well as operating separately, and the settlements on the Cumberland came under attack from the Chickasaw, Shawnee from the north, and Delaware as well. Campaigns by Dragging Canoe and his successor, John Watts, were frequently conducted in conjunction campaigns in the
Northwest. The response by the colonists were usually attacks in which Cherokee towns in peaceful areas were completely destroyed, though usually without great loss of life on either side. The wars continued until the Treaty of
Tellico Blockhouse in November 1794.
Northwest Indian War
The Battle of Fallen Timbers
In 1787, the
Northwest Ordinance officially organized the
Northwest Territory for white settlement. American settlers began pouring into the region. Violence erupted as Indians resisted this encroachment, and so the administration of President
George Washington sent armed expeditions into the area to put down native resistance. However, in the
Northwest Indian War, a pan-tribal confederacy led by
Blue Jacket (Shawnee),
Little Turtle (Miami),
Buckongahelas (Lenape), and
Egushawa (Ottawa) crushed armies led by Generals
Josiah Harmar and
Arthur St. Clair. General St. Clair's defeat was the severest loss ever inflicted upon an American army by Native Americans. The Americans attempted to negotiate a settlement, but Blue Jacket and the Shawnee-led confederacy insisted on a boundary line the Americans found unacceptable, and so a new expedition led by General
Anthony Wayne was dispatched. Wayne's army defeated the Indian confederacy at the
Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. The Indians had hoped for British assistance; when that was not forthcoming, the Indians were compelled to sign the
Treaty of Greenville in 1795, which ceded modern-day
Ohio and part of
Indiana to the United States.
Tecumseh, the Creek War, and the War of 1812
Tecumseh
The United States continued to gain title to Native American land after the Treaty of Greenville, at a rate that created alarm in Indian communities. In 1800,
William Henry Harrison became governor of the
Indiana Territory and, under the direction of President
Thomas Jefferson, pursued an aggressive policy of obtaining titles to Indian lands. Two Shawnee brothers,
Tecumseh and
Tenskwatawa, organized
another pan-tribal resistance to American expansion. Tecumseh's goal was to get Native American leaders to stop selling land to the United States.
While Tecumseh was in the south attempting to recruit allies among the
Creeks,
Cherokees, and
Choctaws, Harrison marched against the Indian confederacy, defeating Tenskwatawa and his followers at the
Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811. The Americans hoped that the victory would end the militant resistance, but Tecumseh instead chose to openly ally with the British, who were soon at war with the Americans in the
War of 1812.
Like the Revolutionary War, the War of 1812 was also a massive Indian war on the western front. Encouraged by Tecumseh, the
Creek War (1813-1814), which began as a
civil war within the Creek (Muscogee) nation, became part of the larger struggle against American expansion. Although the war with the British was a stalemate, the United States was more successful on the western front. Tecumseh was killed by Harrison's army at the
Battle of the Thames, ending the resistance in the Old Northwest. The Creeks who fought against the United States were defeated. The
First Seminole War, in 1818, was in some ways a continuation of the Creek War and resulted in the transfer of Florida to the United States in 1819.
As in the Revolution and the Northwest Indian War, after the War of 1812, the British abandoned their Indian allies to the Americans. This proved to be a major turning point in the Indian Wars, marking the last time that Native Americans would turn to a foreign power for assistance against the United States.
Removal era wars
One of the results of these wars was passage of the
Indian Removal Act in 1830, which President
Andrew Jackson signed into law in 1830. The Removal Act did not order the removal of any American Indians, but it authorized the President to negotiate treaties that would exchange tribal land in the east for western lands that had been acquired in the
Louisiana Purchase. According to historian
Robert V. Remini, Jackson promoted this policy primarily for reasons of national security, seeing that Great Britain and Spain had recruited and armed Native Americans within U.S. borders in wars with the United States.
[4]
Numerous Indian Removal treaties were signed. Most American Indians reluctantly but peacefully complied with the terms of the removal treaties, often with bitter resignation. Some groups, however, went to war to resist the implementation of these treaties. This resulted in two short wars (the
Black Hawk War of 1832 and the
Creek War of 1836), as well as the long and costly
Second Seminole War (1835–1842).
West of the Mississippi (1823–1890)
As in the
East, expansion into the plains and mountains by miners, ranchers and settlers led to increasing conflicts with the indigenous population of the
West. Many tribes — from the
Utes of the
Great Basin to the
Nez Perces of
Idaho — fought the whites at one time or another. But the
Sioux of the
Northern Plains and the
Apache of the
Southwest provided the most significant opposition to encroachment on tribal lands. Led by resolute, militant leaders, such as
Red Cloud and
Crazy Horse, the Sioux were skilled at high-speed mounted warfare. The Sioux were new arrivals on the Plains—previously they had been sedentary farmers in the
Great Lakes region. Once they learned to capture and ride horses, they moved west, destroyed other Indian tribes in their way, and became feared warriors. Historically the Apaches bands supplimented their economy by raiding others and practiced warfare to avenge a death of a kinsman. The Apache bands were equally adept at fighting and highly elusive in the environs of desert and canyons.
Plains
Main articles: Sand Creek Massacre,
Sioux Wars,
Black Hills War,
Battle of Little Big Horn,
Wounded Knee Massacre
White conflict with the
Plains Indians continued through the
Civil War. The
Dakota War of 1862 (more commonly called the 'Sioux Uprising of 1862' in older authorities and popular texts) was the first major armed engagement between the U.S. and the
Sioux. After six weeks of fighting in Minnesota, lead mostly by Chief
Taoyateduta (aka, Little Crow), records conclusively show that more than 500 U.S. soldiers and settlers died in the conflict, though many more may are believed to have died in small raids or after being captured. The number of Sioux dead in the uprising is mostly undocumented, but after the war, 303 Sioux were convicted of murder and rape by U.S. military tribunals and sentenced to death. Most of the death sentences were commuted, but on
December 26,
1862, in
Mankato, Minnesota, 38 Dakota Sioux men were
hanged in what is still today the largest mass
execution in U.S. history.
[5]
In 1864, one of the more infamous Indian War battles took place, the
Sand Creek Massacre. A locally raised militia attacked a village of
Cheyenne and
Arapaho Indians in southeast
Colorado and killed and mutilated an estimated 150 men, women, and children. The Indians at Sand Creek had been assured by the U.S. Government that they would be safe in the territory they were occupying, but anti-Indian sentiments by white settlers were running high. Later congressional investigations resulted in short-lived U.S. public outcry against the slaughter of the Native Americans.
George Armstrong Custer, the United States Army cavalry commander at the Battle of the Little Bighorn.
In 1876, the last serious
Sioux war erupted, when the Dakota gold rush penetrated the
Black Hills. The
U.S. Army did not keep miners off Sioux (
Lakota) hunting grounds; yet, when ordered to take action against bands of Sioux hunting on the range, according to their treaty rights, the Army moved vigorously. In 1876, after several indecisive encounters, General
George Custer found the main encampment of the Lakota and their allies at the
Battle of Little Big Horn. Custer and his men — who were separated from their main body of troops — were all killed by the far more numerous Indians who had the tactical advantage. They were led in the field by
Crazy Horse and inspired by
Sitting Bull's earlier vision of victory.
Later, in 1890, a
Ghost Dance ritual on the Northern Lakota reservation at Wounded Knee,
South Dakota, led to the Army's attempt to disarm the Lakota. During this attempt, gunfire erupted, and soldiers killed approximately 100 Indians. The approximately 25 soldiers who died may have been killed by friendly fire during the battle. Long before this, the means of subsistence and the societies of the indigenous population of the Great Plains had been destroyed by the slaughter of the
buffalo, driven almost to extinction in the 1880s by indiscriminate hunting.
Southwest
The conflicts in this large geographical area span from 1846 to 1895. They involved every non-pueblo tribe in this region and often were a continuation of Mexican-Spanish conflicts. The
Navajo and
Apaches conflicts are perhaps the best known, but they were not the only ones. The last major campaign of the U.S. military in the Southwest involved 5,000 troops in the field. This caused the Apache
Geronimo and his band of 24 warriors, women and children to surrender in 1886.
The tribes or bands in the southwest (including the Pueblos), had been engaged in cycles of trading and fighting each other and foreign settlers for centuries prior to the United States annexing their region from Mexico in 1840.
Wars of the West timeline
★
Comanche Wars (1836-1875) on the southern plains, primarily
Texas Republic and the state
★
Cayuse War (1848–1855) —
Oregon Territory-
Washington Territory
★
Rogue River Wars (1855-1856) — Oregon Territory
★
Yakima War (1855–1858) — Washington Territory
★
Spokane-Coeur d'Alene-Paloos War (1858) — Washington Territory
★
Fraser Canyon War (1858) –
British Columbia (U.S. irregulars on British territory)
★ California Indian Wars (1860-65) War against Hupa, Wiyot, Yurok, Tolowa, Nomlaki, Chimariko, Tsnungwe, Whilkut, Karuk, Wintun and others.
★
Lamalcha War (1863) — British Columbia
★
Chilcotin War (1864) — British Columbia
★
Navajo Wars (1861–1864) — ended with
Long Walk of the Navajo —
Arizona Territory and
New Mexico Territory.
★
Hualapai or Walapais War (1864–1869) — Arizona Territory
★ Apache Campaigns or
Apache Wars (1864–1886) Careleton put Mescelero on reservation with Navajos at Sumner and continued until 1886, when
Geronimo surrendered.
★
Dakota War of 1862 — skirmishes in the southwestern quadrant of
Minnesota result in hundreds dead. In the largest mass execution in U.S. history, 38
Dakota were hanged. About 1,600 others were sent to a reservation in present-day South Dakota.
★
Red Cloud's War (1866–1868) — Lakota chief
Makhpyia luta (Red Cloud) conducts the most successful attacks against the U.S. Army during the Indian Wars. By the
Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868), the U.S. granted a large reservation to the Lakota, without military presence or oversight, no settlements, and no reserved road building rights. The reservation included the entire
Black Hills.
★
Colorado War (1864–1865) — clashes centered on the
Colorado Eastern Plains between the U.S. Army and an alliance consisting largely of the
Cheyenne and
Arapaho.
★
★
Sand Creek Massacre (1864) —
John Chivington killed more than 450 surrendered Cheyenne and Arapaho.
★
Comanche Campaign (1867–1875) — Maj. Gen.
Philip Sheridan, in command of the
Department of the Missouri, instituted winter campaigning in 1868–69 as a means of rooting out the elusive Indian tribes scattered throughout the border regions of Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, and Texas.
[6]
★
★ See
Fifth Military District {Texas} for reports of US Cavalry vs. Native Americans from August 1867 to September 1869. (US Cavalry units in Texas were the
4th Cavalry Regiment (United States);
6th Cavalry Regiment (United States) and the
9th Cavalry Regiment (United States)).
★
★
Battle of Beecher Island (1868) — northern Cheyenne under war leader Roman Nose fought scouts of the
U.S. 9th Cavalry Regiment in a nine-day battle.
★
★
Battle of Washita River (1868) —
George Armstrong Custer’s
7th U.S. Cavalry attacked
Black Kettle’s Cheyenne village on the
Washita River (near present day
Cheyenne, Oklahoma). 250 men, women and children were killed.
★
★
Battle of Summit Springs (1869) Cheyenne Dog Soldiers led by
Tall Bull defeated by elements of U.S. Army under command of Colonel Eugene A. Carr. Tall Bull died, reportedly killed by
Buffalo Bill Cody.
★
★
Battle of Palo Duro Canyon (1874) — Cheyenne, Comanche, and Kiowa warriors engaged elements of the
U.S. 4th Cavalry Regiment led by Colonel
Ranald S. Mackenzie.
★
Modoc War, or Modoc Campaign (1872–1873) — 53
Modoc warriors under
Captain Jack held off 1,000 men of the U.S. Army for 7 months. Major General
Edward Canby was killed during a peace conference—the only
general to be killed during the Indian Wars.
★
Red River War (1874–1875) — between Comanche and U.S. forces under the command of
William Sherman and Lt. General
Phillip Sheridan.
★
Black Hills War, or Little Big Horn Campaign (1876–1877) — Lakota under
Sitting Bull and
Crazy Horse fought the U.S. after repeated violations of the
Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868).
★
★
Battle of the Rosebud (1876) — Lakota under Tasunka witko clashed with U.S. Army column moving to reinforce Custer's 7th Cavalry.
★
★
Battle of the Little Bighorn (1876) —
Sioux and
Cheyenne under the leadership of Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse defeated the 7th Cavalry under
George Armstrong Custer.
★ Nez Perce Campaign or
Nez Perce War (1877) —
Nez Perce under
Chief Joseph retreated from the
1st U.S. Cavalry through
Idaho,
Yellowstone Park, and
Montana after a group of Nez Perce attacked and killed a group of Anglo settlers in early 1877.
★ Bannock Campaign or
Bannock War (1878 — elements of the
21st U.S. Infantry,
4th U.S. Artillery, and
1st U.S. Cavalry engaged the natives of southern Idaho including the
Bannock and
Paiute when the tribes threatened rebellion in 1878, dissatisfied with their land allotments.
★ Cheyenne Campaign or
Cheyenne War (1878–1879) — a conflict between the United States' armed forces and a small group of
Cheyenne families.
★ Sheepeater Campaign or
Sheepeater War (May – August 1879) — on
May 1,
1879, three detachments of soldiers pursued the
Idaho Western Shoshone throughout central
Idaho during the last campaign in the
Pacific Northwest.
★ Ute Campaign or
Ute War (September 1879–November 1880) — on
September 29,
1879, some 200 men, elements of the
4th U.S. Infantry and
5th U.S. Cavalry under the command of Maj.
T. T. Thornburgh, were attacked and besieged in Red Canyon by 300 to 400
Ute warriors. Thornburgh's group was rescued by forces of the
5th and
U.S. 9th Cavalry Regiment in early October, but not before significant loss of life had occurred. The Utes were finally pacified in November 1880.
★
Pine Ridge Campaign (November 1890–January 1891) — numerous unresolved grievances led to the last major conflict with the Sioux. A lopsided engagement that involved almost half the infantry and cavalry of the Regular Army caused the surviving warriors to lay down their arms and retreat to their reservations in January 1891.
★
★
Wounded Knee Massacre (
December 29,
1890) — Sitting Bull's half-brother,
Big Foot, and some 200 Sioux were killed by the U.S.
7th Cavalry (only fourteen days before, Sitting Bull had been killed with his son
Crow Foot at
Standing Rock Agency in a gun battle with a group of Indian police that had been sent by the American government to arrest him).
Last battles (1898 and 1917)
★
October 5 1898,
Leech Lake,
Minnesota Battle of Sugar Point. Last
Medal of Honor given for Indian Wars Campaigns was awarded to Pvt. Oscar Burkard of
3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment
★ 1917—
U.S. 10th Cavalry Regiment involved in firefight with
Yaqui Indians just west of
Nogales, Arizona.
[1]
U.S. forces
Scouts
★
Apache Scouts
★
Navajo Scouts
★
Seminole Black Scouts (who were scouts for the
Buffalo Soldiers with the 10th Cavalry)
★
U.S. Army Indian Scouts general
Cavalry
★
U.S. 1st Cavalry Regiment – 1834; 1836 to 1892
★
U.S. 2nd Cavalry Regiment – 1867 & 1870
★ U.S.
3d Armored Cavalry Regiment – 1869
★
U.S. 4th Cavalry Regiment – 1865 to 1886
★
U.S. 5th Cavalry Regiment – 1876
★
U.S. 6th Cavalry Regiment – 1867 to 1885 & 1890
★
U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment – 1871 to 1890
★
U.S. 8th Cavalry Regiment – 1867-1869; 1877
★
U.S. 9th Cavalry Regiment – 1868; 1875-1881 aka
Buffalo Soldiers
★
U.S. 10th Cavalry Regiment- 1867-1868; 1875; 1879-1880; 1885; 1917 (
Buffalo Soldiers)
★
U.S. 113th Cavalry Regiment
Infantry
★
U.S. 1st Infantry Regiment – 1791; 1832; 1839-1842; 1870s-1890s.
★
U.S. 2d Infantry Regiment
★
3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment – 1792; 1856-1858; 1860; 1887; 1898
★
U.S. 4th Infantry Regiment – 1808; 1816-1836; 1869-1879
★
U.S. 5th Infantry Regiment – 1877
★
U.S. 6th Infantry Regiment – 1823-1879
★
U.S. 9th Infantry Regiment – 1876
★
U.S. 10th Infantry Regiment
★
U.S. 11th Infantry Regiment – 1874
★
U.S. 12th Infantry Regiment – 1872-1873; 1878; 1890-1891
★
U.S. 13th Infantry Regiment – 1867-1871
★
U.S. 14th Infantry Regiment – 1876
★ U.S.
15th Infantry Regiment (United States)
★
U.S. 16th Infantry Regiment
★
U.S. 18th Infantry Regiment – 1866-1890
★
U.S. 21st Infantry Regiment
★
U.S. 22d Infantry Regiment – 1869; 1872; 1876-1877
★
U.S. 23rd Infantry Regiment – 1866, 1868, 1876.
★ U.S.
24th Infantry Regiment
★ U.S.
25th Infantry Regiment (Buffalo Soldiers) 1866-1890s
See also
★
Mississippi Rifles {155th Infantry Regiment MNG};
War of 1812 Fort Mims
Artillery
★
Company F, U.S. 4th Artillery Regiment
Historiography
In American history books, the Indian Wars have often been treated as a relatively minor part of the military history of the United States. Only in last few decades of the 20th century did a significant number of historians begin to include the American Indian point of view in their writings about the wars, emphasizing the impact of the wars on native peoples and their cultures.
A well-known and influential book in popular history was
Dee Brown's ''
Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee'' (1970). In
academic history, Francis Jennings's ''The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest'' (New York: Norton, 1975) was notable for its reversal of the traditional portrayal of Indian-European relations. A recent and important release from the perspective of both Indians and the soldiers is Jerome A. Greene's ''INDIAN WAR VETERANS: Memories of Army Life and Campaigns in the West, 1864-1898'' (New York, 2007).
Some historians now emphasize that to see the Indian wars as a racial war between Indians and
White Americans simplifies the complex historical reality of the struggle. Indians and whites often fought alongside each other; Indians often fought against Indians. For example, although the
Battle of Horseshoe Bend is often described as an "American victory" over the Creek Indians, the victors were a combined force of Cherokees, Creeks, and
Tennessee militia led by Andrew Jackson. From a broad perspective, the Indian wars were about the conquest of Native American peoples by the United States; up close it was rarely quite as simple as that.
See also
★
Native American conflicts, wars, battles, expeditions and campaigns
★
Indian Campaign Medal
★
Frederick Russell Burnham
Notes
1. Michno, “Encyclopedia of Indian Wars” Index.
2. Thornton, ''American Indian Holocaust'', 48–49.
3. Raphael, ''People's History'', 244.
4. Remini, ''Jackson and his Indian Wars'', 113.
5. The Sioux Uprising of 1862, , Kenneth, Carley, Minnesota Historical Society, 1961,
6. "Named Campaigns — Indian Wars."
References
★
Named Campaigns — Indian Wars
★ Raphael, Ray. ''A People's History of the American Revolution: How Common People Shaped the Fight for Independence.'' New York: The New Press, 2001. ISBN 0-06-000440-1.
★
Remini, Robert V. ''Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars''. New York: Viking, 2001. ISBN 0-670-91025-2.
★ Richter, Daniel K. ''Facing East from Indian Country: A Native History of Early America''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-674-00638-0.
★ Thornton, Russell. ''American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492.'' Oklahoma City: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987. ISBN 0-8061-2220-X.
★ Utley, Robert M., and Wilcomb E. Washburn. 'Indian Wars''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977, revised 1987. ISBN 0-8281-0202-3.
★ Yenne, Bill. ''Indian Wars: The Campaign for the American West.'' Yardley, PA: Westholme, 2005. ISBN 1-59416-016-3.
Further reading
★ Jerome A. Greene, ''Indian War Veterans: Memories of Army Life and Campaigns in the West, 1864-1898'' (Savas Beatie, New York, 2007).
★
Army life on the Pacific : a journal of the expedition against the northern Indians, the tribes of the Cour d'Alenes, Spokans, and Pelouzes, in the summer of 1858, Kip, Lawrence, , , Redfield, 1859, Available online through the Washington State Library's Classics in Washington History collection
★ John D. McDermott, ''A Guide to the Indian Wars of the West'' (University of Nebraska Press, 1998) ISBN 0-8032-8246-X
External links
★
''Indian Wars and Pioneers of Texas'' by
John Henry Brown, published 1880, hosted by the
Portal to Texas History.
★
Increase Mather, A Brief History of the War with the Indians in New-England (1676) Online Edition
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