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:''This is a sub-article to Islamic science and Medicine.''
In the history of medicine, 'Islamic medicine' or 'Arabic medicine' refers to medicine developed in the medieval Islamic civilisation.
Islamic medicine was a genre of medical writing originally intended as an alternative to the Greek-based medical system. Many of its early authors were usually clerics, rather than physicians. They were known to have advocated the traditional medical practices of prophet Muhammad's time, such as those mentioned in the Qur'an and Hadith. For instance, therapy did not require a patient to undergo any surgical procedures at the time. From the 9th century, however, Muslim physicians made many of their own significant advances and contributions to the field of medicine, including the subjects of anatomy, microbiology, ophthalmology, pharmacology, pharmacy, physiology, surgery, and the pharmaceutical sciences.
Medicine was a central part of medieval Islamic culture. Responding to circumstances of time and place, Islamic physicians and scholars developed a large and complex medical literature exploring and synthesizing the theory and practice of medicine.National Library of Medicine digital archives. Islamic medicine was initially built on tradition, chiefly the theoretical and practical knowledge developed in Persia, Greece, Rome, and India. Galen and Hippocrates were pre-eminent authorities, as well as the Indian physicians Sushruta and Charaka, and the Hellenistic scholars in Alexandria. Islamic scholars translated their voluminous writings from Greek and Sanskrit into Arabic and then produced new medical knowledge based on those texts.[1] In order to make the Greek and Indian traditions more accessible, understandable, and teachable, Islamic scholars ordered and made more systematic the vast and sometimes inconsistent Greco-Roman and Indian medical knowledge by writing encyclopedias and summaries. It was through Arabic translations that the West learned of Hellenic medicine, including the works of Galen and Hippocrates. Of equal if not of greater influence in Western Europe were systematic and comprehensive works such as Abū Alī ibn Sīnā's ''The Canon of Medicine'', which were translated into Latin and then disseminated in manuscript and printed form throughout Europe. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries alone, ''The Canon of Medicine'' was published more than thirty-five times.
Muslim physicians set up some of the earliest dedicated hospitals. In the medieval Islamic world, hospitals were built in all major cities; in Cairo for example, the Qalawun Hospital could care for 8,000 patients, and a staff that included physicians, pharmacists, and nurses. One could also access a dispensary, and research facility that led to advances, which included the discovery of the contagious nature of diseases, and research into optics and the mechanisms of the eye. Muslim doctors were removing cataracts with hollow needles over 1000 years before Western physicians dared attempt such a task. Hospitals were built not only for the physically sick, but for the mentally sick also. One of the first ever psychiatric hospitals that cared for the mentally ill was built in Cairo. Hospitals later spread to Europe during the Crusades, inspired by the hospitals in the Middle East. The first hospital in Paris, Les Quinze-vingt, was founded by Louis IX after his return from the Crusade between 1254-1260.George Sarton, ''Introduction to the History of Science''.
(cf. Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), Quotations From Famous Historians of Science, Cyberistan.
Hospitals in the Islamic world featured competency tests for doctors, drug purity regulations, nurses and interns, and advanced surgical procedures.[2]
Another feature in medieval Muslim hospitals that distinguished them from their contemporaries was their higher standards of medical ethics. Hospitals in the Islamic world treated patients of all religions, ethnicities, and backgrounds, while the hospitals themselves often employed staff from Chrisian, Jewish and other minority backgrounds. Muslim doctors and physicians were expected to have obligations towards their patients, regardless of their wealth or backgrounds. The ethical standards of Muslim physicians was first laid down in the in the 9th century by Ishaq bin Ali Rahawi, who wrote the ''Adab al-Tabib'' (''Conduct of a Physician''), the first treatist dedicated to medical ethics. He regarded physicians as "guardians of souls and bodies", and wrote twenty chapters on various topics related to medical ethics, including:Islamic Science, the Scholar and Ethics, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.
★ What the physician must avoid and beware of
★ The manners of visitors
★ The care of remedies by the physician
★ The dignity of the medical profession
★ The examination of physicians
★ The removal of corruption among physicians
On a professional level, al-Razi (Rhazes) introduced many practical, progressive, medical and psychological ideas in the 10th century. He attacked charlatans and fake doctors who roamed the cities and countryside selling their nostrums and 'cures'. At the same time, he warned that even highly educated doctors did not have the answers to all medical problems and could not cure all sicknesses or heal every disease, which was humanly speaking impossible. To become more useful in their services and truer to their calling, Razi advised practitioners to keep up with advanced knowledge by continually studying medical books and exposing themselves to new information. He made a distinction between curable and incurable diseases. Pertaining to the latter, he commented that in the case of advanced cases of cancer and leprosy the physician should not be blamed when he could not cure them. To add a humorous note, Razi felt great pity for physicians who took care for the well being of princes, nobility, and women, because they did not obey the doctor's orders to restrict their diet or get medical treatment, thus making it most difficult being their physician. He also wrote the following on medical ethics:
The ''Comprehensive Book of Medicine'' was written by Rhazes in the 9th century. The ''Large Comprehensive'', was the most sought after of all his compositions. In it, Rhazes recorded clinical cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various diseases. The ''Comprehensive Book of Medicine'', with its introduction of measles and smallpox, was very influential in Europe.
Al-Kindi was a great Arab doctor who wrote many books on the subject of medicine. His most important work in the field was ''De Gradibus'', in which he demonstrated the application of mathematics to medicine, particularly in the field of pharmacology. This includes the development of a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of drugs, and a system that would allow a doctor to determine in advance the most critical days of a patient's illness, based on the phases of the Moon.[3]
Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis), regarded as the "father of modern surgery",[4] contributed greatly to the discipline of medical surgery with his ''Kitab al-Tasrif'' ("''Book of Concessions''"), a 30-volume medical encyclopedia published in 1000, which was later translated to Latin and used in European medical schools for centuries. He invented numerous surgical instruments, including the first instruments unique to women,Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", ''Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' '2' (4), p. 475-479 [476]. Oxford University Press. as well as the surgical uses of catgut and forceps, the ligature, surgical needle, scalpel, curette, retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, and specula, bone saw, and plaster.Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II, ''The Milli Gazette''.
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) made important advances in eye surgery, and he studied and correctly explained the process of sight and visual perception for the first time in his ''Book of Optics'', published in 1021.
Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna), a Mu'tazili philosopher and doctor in the early 11th century, was another influential figure. He is regarded as the father of modern medicine,[5] and one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history. His medical encyclopedia, ''The Canon of Medicine'', remained a standard textbook in Europe for centuries, up until the renewal of the Muslim tradition of scientific medicine. He also wrote ''The Book of Healing'', another popular textbook in Europe. Among other things, Avicenna's contributions to medicine include the introduction of systematic experimentation and quantification into the study of physiology,[6] the discovery of the contagious nature of diseases, the distinction of mediastinitis from pleurisy, the contagious nature of phthisis and tuberculosis, the distribution of diseases by water and soil, and the first careful descriptions of skin troubles, sexually transmitted diseases, perversions, and nervous ailments, as well the use of ice to treat fevers, and the separation of medicine from pharmacology, which was important to the development of the pharmaceutical sciences.
In the 11th century, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī's ''Kitab-al-Saidana'' was an extensive medical encyclopedia which synthesized Islamic medicine with Indian medicine. His medical investigations included one of the earliest descriptions on Siamese twins.
In 1242, Ibn al-Nafis was the first to describe human blood circulation and pulmonary circulation.[7] This discovery would be rediscovered, or perhaps merely demonstrated, by William Harvey in 1628, who was previously credited for this discovery in Western history. In the 15th century, the ''Tashrih al-badan'' (''Anatomy of the body'') written by Mansur ibn Ilyas contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems.H. R. Turner (1997), p. 136—138
Other medical innovations first introduced by Muslim physicians include the discovery of the immune system, the introduction of microbiology, the use of animal testing, and the combination of medicine with other sciences (including agriculture, botany, chemistry, and pharmacology), as well as the first drugstores in Baghdad (754), the distinction between medicine and pharmacy in the 12th century, and the discovery of at least 2,000 medicinal substances.[8] Other medical advances came in the fields of pharmacology and pharmacy.
George Sarton, the father of the history of science, wrote in the ''Introduction to the History of Science'':George Sarton, ''Introduction to the History of Science''.
(cf. Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), Quotations From Famous Historians of Science, Cyberistan.
Modern anesthesia was developed by Muslim anesthesiologists. They utilized oral as well as inhalant anesthetics. In Islamic Spain, Abu al-Qasim and Ibn Zuhr, among other Muslim surgeons, performed hundreds of surgeries under inhalant anesthesia with the use of narcotic-soaked sponges which were placed over the face. Muslim physicians also introduced the anesthetic value of opium derivatives during the Middle Ages. Ibn Sina (Avicenna) wrote about its medical uses in his works, which later incluenced the works of Paracelsus.Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992). ''Miracle of Islamic Science'', Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0911119434.
Al-Razi (10th century) used mercurial compounds as topical antiseptics. From the 10th century, Muslim physicians and surgeons were applying purified alcohol to wounds as an antiseptic agent. Surgeons in Islamic Spain utilized special methods for maintaining antisepsis prior to and during surgery. They also originated specific protocols for maintaining hygiene during the post-operative period. Their success rate was so high that dignitaries throughout Europe came to Córdoba, Spain, to be treated at what was comparably the "Mayo Clinic" of the Middle Ages.
Al-Razi, Avicenna, al-Kindi, Ibn Rushd, Abu al-Qasim, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn Baytar, Ibn al-Jazzar, Ibn Juljul, Ibn al-Quff, Ibn an-Nafs, al-Biruni, Ibn Sahl and hundreds of other Muslim physicians developed drug therapy and medicinal drugs for the treatment of specific symptoms and diseases. The word "drug" is derived from Arabic. Their use of practical experience and careful observation was extensive.
Chemotherapeutical drugs were first developed in the Muslim world. Muslim physicians used a variety of specific substances to destroy microbes. They applied sulfur topically specifically to kill the scabies mite.
Numerous Muslim chemists produced medicinal-grade alcohol through distillation as early as the 10th century and manufactured on a large scale the first distillation devices for use in chemistry. They used alcohol as a solvent and antiseptic.
In 1000, Abu al-Qasim (Abucasis), the father of modern surgery, invented the modern plaster, which is still used in hospitals throughout the world.
The medical procedure of inoculation was practiced in the medieval Islamic world, and was later followed by the first smallpox vaccine in the form of cowpox, invented in Turkey in the early 18th century.Paul Vallely, How Islamic Inventors Changed the World, ''The Independent'', 11 March 2006.
The surgical procedure of tracheotomy was invented by Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) in the 12th century.
In 1000, Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis), considered the "father of modern surgery", in his influential ''Al-Tasrif'' (''The Method of Medicine''), introduced his famous collection of over 200 surgical instruments. Many of these instruments were never used before by any previous surgeons. Hamidan, for example, listed at least twenty six innovative surgical instruments that Abulcasis introduced. Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili is also notable for inventing the injection syringe.
Abu al-Qasim's use of catgut for internal stitching is still practised in modern surgery. The catgut appears to be the only natural substance capable of dissolving and is acceptable by the body.
In the ''Al-Tasrif'' (1000), Abu al-Qasim invented the forceps for extracting a dead fetus, as illustrated in the the ''Al-Tasrif''.[9]
The Iraqi surgeon Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili invented the first injection syringe in the 9th century using a hollow glass tube and suction to extract and remove cataracts from patients' eyes.
In the ''Al-Tasrif'' (1000), Abu al-Qasim introduced the use of ligature for the arteries in lieu of cauterization.
The surgical needle was invented and described by Abu al-Qasim in his ''Al-Tasrif'' (1000).A. I. Makki. "Needles & Pins", ''AlShindagah'' '68', Januray-February 2006.
Other surgical instruments invented by Abu al-Qasim and first described in his ''Al-Tasrif'' (1000) include the scalpel, curette, retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, and specula,Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslem Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", ''The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L.'' '4' (1), p. 1-15. (cf. Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.) as well as the bone saw.
Of all the branches of Islamic medicine, ophthalmology was one of the foremost. The specialized instruments used in their operations ran into scores. Innovations such as the “injection syringe”, a hollow needle, invented by Ammar ibn Ali of Mosul, which was used for the extraction by suction of soft cataracts were quite common.
Islam stressed the need for individual understanding of their mental health. Those afflicted with a mental illness were thought to be possessed by ''jinn'' (genies), supernatural spirits that can be either good or bad. The Qur'an mentions the idea of the spirit or soul constantly, preaching the idea that only though radical change of one’s conception of the universe can one move closer to God. Unlike the Jewish conception of mental illness as sin, the Islamic viewpoint interpreted mental illness as a sign of supernatural intervention that was not necessarily malignant. Changes in the psyche could be either good or bad – the Sufi movement of Islam, for instance, teaches spirituality though near-mysticism, using song, dance, and narcotics to induce an altered mental state and a closer connection of God. This new attitude towards the mind, freeing mental illness from implications of wrongdoing, paved the way for a more scientific examination of the causes and symptoms of mental illness. The first such advances were made by Islamic scholars.
The Arab physician Al-Razi (Rhazes) wrote the landmark texts ''El-Mansuri'' and ''Al-Hawi'' in the 10th century, which presented definitions, symptoms, and treatments for many illness related to mental health and mental illness. He also ran the psychiatric ward of a Baghdad hospital. Such institutions could not exist in Europe at the time because of fear of demonic possessions. In the centuries to come, Islam would eventually serve as a critical waystation of knowledge for Renaissance Europe, through the Latin translations of many scientific Islamic texts.
In psychology, the Arab physician Al-Razi (Rhazes) was the first to study psychotherapy and made significant advances in psychiatry in his landmark texts ''El-Mansuri'' and ''Al-Hawi'' in the 10th century, which presented definitions, symptoms, and treatments for problems related to mental health and mental illness. He also ran the psychiatric ward of a Baghdad hospital. Such institutions could not exist in Europe at the time because of fear of demonic possessions.
Ibn al-Haytham is considered the founder of psychophysics and experimental psychology,Omar Khaleefa (Summer 1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", ''American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences'' '16' (2). for his pioneering work on the on the psychology of visual perception in the ''Book of Optics''. In Book III of the ''Book of Optics'', Ibn al-Haytham was the first scientist to argue that vision occurs in the brain, rather than the eyes. He pointed out that personal experience has an affect on what people see and how they see, and that vision and perception are subjective. He explained possible errors in vision in detail, and as an example, describes how a small child with less experience may have more difficulty interpreting what he/she sees. He also gives an example of an adult that can make mistakes in vision because of how one's experience suggests that he/she is seeing one thing, when he/she is really seeing something else.Bradley Steffens (2006). ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist'', Chapter 5. Morgan Reynolds Publishing. ISBN 1599350246.
Ibn al-Haytham was also the first to combine physics and psychology to form psychophysics, and his investigations and experiments on psychology and visual perception included sensation, variations in sensitivity, sensation of touch, perception of colours, perception of darkness, the psychological explanation of the moon illusion, and binocular vision.
Steam distillation was invented by Avicenna in the early 11th century for the purpose of producing essential oils.Marlene Ericksen (2000). ''Healing with Aromatherapy'', p. 9. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0658003828.
Essential oils were first produced by Avicenna in the early 11th century, using steam distillation, giving rise to aromatherapy. As a result, he is regarded as a pioneer of aromatherapy.
★ Unani
★ Bimaristan
★ Islamic Golden Age
★ ''Medical Encyclopedia of Islam and Iran''
1. Hakeem Abdul Hameed, Exchanges between India and Central Asia in the field of Medicine
2. Michael Woods, Islam, once at forefront of science, fell by wayside, ''Post-Gazette National Bureau'', Sunday, April 11, 2004.
3. Felix Klein-Frank (2001), ''Al-Kindi'', in Oliver Leaman and Hossein Nasr, ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 172. Routledge, London.
4. Martin-Araguz, A.; Bustamante-Martinez, C.; Fernandez-Armayor, Ajo V.; Moreno-Martinez, J. M. (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", ''Revista de neurología'' '34' (9), p. 877-892.
5. Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture: Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)", ''Becka J.'' '119' (1), p. 17-23.
6. Katharine Park (March 1990). "''Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500'' by Nancy G. Siraisi", ''The Journal of Modern History'' '62' (1), p. 169-170.
7. S. A. Al-Dabbagh (1978). "Ibn Al-Nafis and the pulmonary circulation", ''The Lancet'' '1', p. 1148.
8. S. Hadzovic (1997). "Pharmacy and the great contribution of Arab-Islamic science to its development", ''Med Arh.'' '51' (1-2), p. 47-50.
9. Ingrid Hehmeyer and Aliya Khan (2007). "Islam's forgotten contributions to medical science", ''Canadian Medical Association Journal'' '176' (10).
★ Islamic Medicine, , Edward G., Browne, Goodword Books, 2002, ISBN 81-87570-19-9
★ Medieval Islamic Medicine: Ibn Ridwan's Treatise "On the Prevention of Bodily Ills in Egypt", , Michael W., Dols, University of California Press, 1984, ISBN 0520048369
★ Medieval Islamic Medicine, , Peter E., Pormann, Edinburgh University Press, 2007, ISBN 0748620664
★ The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine, , Roy, Porter, Cambridge University Press, 2001, ISBN 0521002524
★ Islamic Medicine, , Manfred, Ullmann, , 1978, ISBN 0852243251
★ Islamic Medical Manuscripts at the National Library of Medicine.
★ Arabic (or Islamic) Influence On the Historical Development of Medicine by Prof. Hamed Abdel-reheem Ead.
★ All about Islamic Medicine for magic, possession and more
★ Contagion - Perspectives from Pre-Modern Societies
★ http://www.islamset.com/bioethics/vision/salami.html
In the history of medicine, 'Islamic medicine' or 'Arabic medicine' refers to medicine developed in the medieval Islamic civilisation.
Overview
Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna), considered the father of modern medicine, introduced systematic experimentation and quantification into physiology, discovered the contagious nature of diseases, and described many medical treatments, including anesthetics and medical and therapeutic drugs, in ''The Canon of Medicine''.
Islamic medicine was a genre of medical writing originally intended as an alternative to the Greek-based medical system. Many of its early authors were usually clerics, rather than physicians. They were known to have advocated the traditional medical practices of prophet Muhammad's time, such as those mentioned in the Qur'an and Hadith. For instance, therapy did not require a patient to undergo any surgical procedures at the time. From the 9th century, however, Muslim physicians made many of their own significant advances and contributions to the field of medicine, including the subjects of anatomy, microbiology, ophthalmology, pharmacology, pharmacy, physiology, surgery, and the pharmaceutical sciences.
Medicine was a central part of medieval Islamic culture. Responding to circumstances of time and place, Islamic physicians and scholars developed a large and complex medical literature exploring and synthesizing the theory and practice of medicine.National Library of Medicine digital archives. Islamic medicine was initially built on tradition, chiefly the theoretical and practical knowledge developed in Persia, Greece, Rome, and India. Galen and Hippocrates were pre-eminent authorities, as well as the Indian physicians Sushruta and Charaka, and the Hellenistic scholars in Alexandria. Islamic scholars translated their voluminous writings from Greek and Sanskrit into Arabic and then produced new medical knowledge based on those texts.[1] In order to make the Greek and Indian traditions more accessible, understandable, and teachable, Islamic scholars ordered and made more systematic the vast and sometimes inconsistent Greco-Roman and Indian medical knowledge by writing encyclopedias and summaries. It was through Arabic translations that the West learned of Hellenic medicine, including the works of Galen and Hippocrates. Of equal if not of greater influence in Western Europe were systematic and comprehensive works such as Abū Alī ibn Sīnā's ''The Canon of Medicine'', which were translated into Latin and then disseminated in manuscript and printed form throughout Europe. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries alone, ''The Canon of Medicine'' was published more than thirty-five times.
Hospitals
Muslim physicians set up some of the earliest dedicated hospitals. In the medieval Islamic world, hospitals were built in all major cities; in Cairo for example, the Qalawun Hospital could care for 8,000 patients, and a staff that included physicians, pharmacists, and nurses. One could also access a dispensary, and research facility that led to advances, which included the discovery of the contagious nature of diseases, and research into optics and the mechanisms of the eye. Muslim doctors were removing cataracts with hollow needles over 1000 years before Western physicians dared attempt such a task. Hospitals were built not only for the physically sick, but for the mentally sick also. One of the first ever psychiatric hospitals that cared for the mentally ill was built in Cairo. Hospitals later spread to Europe during the Crusades, inspired by the hospitals in the Middle East. The first hospital in Paris, Les Quinze-vingt, was founded by Louis IX after his return from the Crusade between 1254-1260.George Sarton, ''Introduction to the History of Science''.
(cf. Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), Quotations From Famous Historians of Science, Cyberistan.
Hospitals in the Islamic world featured competency tests for doctors, drug purity regulations, nurses and interns, and advanced surgical procedures.[2]
Ethics
Another feature in medieval Muslim hospitals that distinguished them from their contemporaries was their higher standards of medical ethics. Hospitals in the Islamic world treated patients of all religions, ethnicities, and backgrounds, while the hospitals themselves often employed staff from Chrisian, Jewish and other minority backgrounds. Muslim doctors and physicians were expected to have obligations towards their patients, regardless of their wealth or backgrounds. The ethical standards of Muslim physicians was first laid down in the in the 9th century by Ishaq bin Ali Rahawi, who wrote the ''Adab al-Tabib'' (''Conduct of a Physician''), the first treatist dedicated to medical ethics. He regarded physicians as "guardians of souls and bodies", and wrote twenty chapters on various topics related to medical ethics, including:Islamic Science, the Scholar and Ethics, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.
★ What the physician must avoid and beware of
★ The manners of visitors
★ The care of remedies by the physician
★ The dignity of the medical profession
★ The examination of physicians
★ The removal of corruption among physicians
On a professional level, al-Razi (Rhazes) introduced many practical, progressive, medical and psychological ideas in the 10th century. He attacked charlatans and fake doctors who roamed the cities and countryside selling their nostrums and 'cures'. At the same time, he warned that even highly educated doctors did not have the answers to all medical problems and could not cure all sicknesses or heal every disease, which was humanly speaking impossible. To become more useful in their services and truer to their calling, Razi advised practitioners to keep up with advanced knowledge by continually studying medical books and exposing themselves to new information. He made a distinction between curable and incurable diseases. Pertaining to the latter, he commented that in the case of advanced cases of cancer and leprosy the physician should not be blamed when he could not cure them. To add a humorous note, Razi felt great pity for physicians who took care for the well being of princes, nobility, and women, because they did not obey the doctor's orders to restrict their diet or get medical treatment, thus making it most difficult being their physician. He also wrote the following on medical ethics:
Contributions
The ''Comprehensive Book of Medicine'' was written by Rhazes in the 9th century. The ''Large Comprehensive'', was the most sought after of all his compositions. In it, Rhazes recorded clinical cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various diseases. The ''Comprehensive Book of Medicine'', with its introduction of measles and smallpox, was very influential in Europe.
Al-Kindi was a great Arab doctor who wrote many books on the subject of medicine. His most important work in the field was ''De Gradibus'', in which he demonstrated the application of mathematics to medicine, particularly in the field of pharmacology. This includes the development of a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of drugs, and a system that would allow a doctor to determine in advance the most critical days of a patient's illness, based on the phases of the Moon.[3]
Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis), regarded as the "father of modern surgery",[4] contributed greatly to the discipline of medical surgery with his ''Kitab al-Tasrif'' ("''Book of Concessions''"), a 30-volume medical encyclopedia published in 1000, which was later translated to Latin and used in European medical schools for centuries. He invented numerous surgical instruments, including the first instruments unique to women,Bashar Saad, Hassan Azaizeh, Omar Said (October 2005). "Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review", ''Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' '2' (4), p. 475-479 [476]. Oxford University Press. as well as the surgical uses of catgut and forceps, the ligature, surgical needle, scalpel, curette, retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, and specula, bone saw, and plaster.Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II, ''The Milli Gazette''.
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) made important advances in eye surgery, and he studied and correctly explained the process of sight and visual perception for the first time in his ''Book of Optics'', published in 1021.
Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna), a Mu'tazili philosopher and doctor in the early 11th century, was another influential figure. He is regarded as the father of modern medicine,[5] and one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history. His medical encyclopedia, ''The Canon of Medicine'', remained a standard textbook in Europe for centuries, up until the renewal of the Muslim tradition of scientific medicine. He also wrote ''The Book of Healing'', another popular textbook in Europe. Among other things, Avicenna's contributions to medicine include the introduction of systematic experimentation and quantification into the study of physiology,[6] the discovery of the contagious nature of diseases, the distinction of mediastinitis from pleurisy, the contagious nature of phthisis and tuberculosis, the distribution of diseases by water and soil, and the first careful descriptions of skin troubles, sexually transmitted diseases, perversions, and nervous ailments, as well the use of ice to treat fevers, and the separation of medicine from pharmacology, which was important to the development of the pharmaceutical sciences.
In the 11th century, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī's ''Kitab-al-Saidana'' was an extensive medical encyclopedia which synthesized Islamic medicine with Indian medicine. His medical investigations included one of the earliest descriptions on Siamese twins.
In 1242, Ibn al-Nafis was the first to describe human blood circulation and pulmonary circulation.[7] This discovery would be rediscovered, or perhaps merely demonstrated, by William Harvey in 1628, who was previously credited for this discovery in Western history. In the 15th century, the ''Tashrih al-badan'' (''Anatomy of the body'') written by Mansur ibn Ilyas contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems.H. R. Turner (1997), p. 136—138
Other medical innovations first introduced by Muslim physicians include the discovery of the immune system, the introduction of microbiology, the use of animal testing, and the combination of medicine with other sciences (including agriculture, botany, chemistry, and pharmacology), as well as the first drugstores in Baghdad (754), the distinction between medicine and pharmacy in the 12th century, and the discovery of at least 2,000 medicinal substances.[8] Other medical advances came in the fields of pharmacology and pharmacy.
Legacy
George Sarton, the father of the history of science, wrote in the ''Introduction to the History of Science'':George Sarton, ''Introduction to the History of Science''.
(cf. Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), Quotations From Famous Historians of Science, Cyberistan.
An Arabic manuscript, dated 1200 CE, titled ''Anatomy of the Eye'', authored by al-Mutadibih.
Medical treatments
Anesthesia
Modern anesthesia was developed by Muslim anesthesiologists. They utilized oral as well as inhalant anesthetics. In Islamic Spain, Abu al-Qasim and Ibn Zuhr, among other Muslim surgeons, performed hundreds of surgeries under inhalant anesthesia with the use of narcotic-soaked sponges which were placed over the face. Muslim physicians also introduced the anesthetic value of opium derivatives during the Middle Ages. Ibn Sina (Avicenna) wrote about its medical uses in his works, which later incluenced the works of Paracelsus.Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992). ''Miracle of Islamic Science'', Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0911119434.
Antiseptics
Al-Razi (10th century) used mercurial compounds as topical antiseptics. From the 10th century, Muslim physicians and surgeons were applying purified alcohol to wounds as an antiseptic agent. Surgeons in Islamic Spain utilized special methods for maintaining antisepsis prior to and during surgery. They also originated specific protocols for maintaining hygiene during the post-operative period. Their success rate was so high that dignitaries throughout Europe came to Córdoba, Spain, to be treated at what was comparably the "Mayo Clinic" of the Middle Ages.
Medical and therapeutic drugs
Al-Razi, Avicenna, al-Kindi, Ibn Rushd, Abu al-Qasim, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn Baytar, Ibn al-Jazzar, Ibn Juljul, Ibn al-Quff, Ibn an-Nafs, al-Biruni, Ibn Sahl and hundreds of other Muslim physicians developed drug therapy and medicinal drugs for the treatment of specific symptoms and diseases. The word "drug" is derived from Arabic. Their use of practical experience and careful observation was extensive.
Chemotherapeutical drugs were first developed in the Muslim world. Muslim physicians used a variety of specific substances to destroy microbes. They applied sulfur topically specifically to kill the scabies mite.
Medicinal alcohol
Numerous Muslim chemists produced medicinal-grade alcohol through distillation as early as the 10th century and manufactured on a large scale the first distillation devices for use in chemistry. They used alcohol as a solvent and antiseptic.
Plaster
In 1000, Abu al-Qasim (Abucasis), the father of modern surgery, invented the modern plaster, which is still used in hospitals throughout the world.
Smallpox vaccines
The medical procedure of inoculation was practiced in the medieval Islamic world, and was later followed by the first smallpox vaccine in the form of cowpox, invented in Turkey in the early 18th century.Paul Vallely, How Islamic Inventors Changed the World, ''The Independent'', 11 March 2006.
Tracheotomy
The surgical procedure of tracheotomy was invented by Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) in the 12th century.
Surgical intstruments
Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis), the father of modern surgery, performed surgeries under inhalant anesthesia, and invented the plaster and many surgical instruments.
In 1000, Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis), considered the "father of modern surgery", in his influential ''Al-Tasrif'' (''The Method of Medicine''), introduced his famous collection of over 200 surgical instruments. Many of these instruments were never used before by any previous surgeons. Hamidan, for example, listed at least twenty six innovative surgical instruments that Abulcasis introduced. Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili is also notable for inventing the injection syringe.
Catgut
Abu al-Qasim's use of catgut for internal stitching is still practised in modern surgery. The catgut appears to be the only natural substance capable of dissolving and is acceptable by the body.
Forceps
In the ''Al-Tasrif'' (1000), Abu al-Qasim invented the forceps for extracting a dead fetus, as illustrated in the the ''Al-Tasrif''.[9]
Injection syringe
The Iraqi surgeon Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili invented the first injection syringe in the 9th century using a hollow glass tube and suction to extract and remove cataracts from patients' eyes.
Ligature
In the ''Al-Tasrif'' (1000), Abu al-Qasim introduced the use of ligature for the arteries in lieu of cauterization.
Surgical needle
The surgical needle was invented and described by Abu al-Qasim in his ''Al-Tasrif'' (1000).A. I. Makki. "Needles & Pins", ''AlShindagah'' '68', Januray-February 2006.
Other instruments
Other surgical instruments invented by Abu al-Qasim and first described in his ''Al-Tasrif'' (1000) include the scalpel, curette, retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, and specula,Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslem Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", ''The Egyptian Journal of O.R.L.'' '4' (1), p. 1-15. (cf. Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.) as well as the bone saw.
Ophthalmology
Of all the branches of Islamic medicine, ophthalmology was one of the foremost. The specialized instruments used in their operations ran into scores. Innovations such as the “injection syringe”, a hollow needle, invented by Ammar ibn Ali of Mosul, which was used for the extraction by suction of soft cataracts were quite common.
Psychology
Al-Razi (Rhazes) made significant advances in psychiatry and wrote the earliest texts on psychotherapy, presenting definitions, symptoms, and treatments for problems related to mental health and mental illness. He also used mercurial compounds as topical antiseptics.
Mental health and mental illness
Islam stressed the need for individual understanding of their mental health. Those afflicted with a mental illness were thought to be possessed by ''jinn'' (genies), supernatural spirits that can be either good or bad. The Qur'an mentions the idea of the spirit or soul constantly, preaching the idea that only though radical change of one’s conception of the universe can one move closer to God. Unlike the Jewish conception of mental illness as sin, the Islamic viewpoint interpreted mental illness as a sign of supernatural intervention that was not necessarily malignant. Changes in the psyche could be either good or bad – the Sufi movement of Islam, for instance, teaches spirituality though near-mysticism, using song, dance, and narcotics to induce an altered mental state and a closer connection of God. This new attitude towards the mind, freeing mental illness from implications of wrongdoing, paved the way for a more scientific examination of the causes and symptoms of mental illness. The first such advances were made by Islamic scholars.
The Arab physician Al-Razi (Rhazes) wrote the landmark texts ''El-Mansuri'' and ''Al-Hawi'' in the 10th century, which presented definitions, symptoms, and treatments for many illness related to mental health and mental illness. He also ran the psychiatric ward of a Baghdad hospital. Such institutions could not exist in Europe at the time because of fear of demonic possessions. In the centuries to come, Islam would eventually serve as a critical waystation of knowledge for Renaissance Europe, through the Latin translations of many scientific Islamic texts.
Psychotherapy and psychiatry
In psychology, the Arab physician Al-Razi (Rhazes) was the first to study psychotherapy and made significant advances in psychiatry in his landmark texts ''El-Mansuri'' and ''Al-Hawi'' in the 10th century, which presented definitions, symptoms, and treatments for problems related to mental health and mental illness. He also ran the psychiatric ward of a Baghdad hospital. Such institutions could not exist in Europe at the time because of fear of demonic possessions.
Psychophysics and experimental psychology
Ibn al-Haytham is considered the founder of psychophysics and experimental psychology,Omar Khaleefa (Summer 1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", ''American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences'' '16' (2). for his pioneering work on the on the psychology of visual perception in the ''Book of Optics''. In Book III of the ''Book of Optics'', Ibn al-Haytham was the first scientist to argue that vision occurs in the brain, rather than the eyes. He pointed out that personal experience has an affect on what people see and how they see, and that vision and perception are subjective. He explained possible errors in vision in detail, and as an example, describes how a small child with less experience may have more difficulty interpreting what he/she sees. He also gives an example of an adult that can make mistakes in vision because of how one's experience suggests that he/she is seeing one thing, when he/she is really seeing something else.Bradley Steffens (2006). ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist'', Chapter 5. Morgan Reynolds Publishing. ISBN 1599350246.
Ibn al-Haytham was also the first to combine physics and psychology to form psychophysics, and his investigations and experiments on psychology and visual perception included sensation, variations in sensitivity, sensation of touch, perception of colours, perception of darkness, the psychological explanation of the moon illusion, and binocular vision.
Aromatherapy
Steam distillation
Steam distillation was invented by Avicenna in the early 11th century for the purpose of producing essential oils.Marlene Ericksen (2000). ''Healing with Aromatherapy'', p. 9. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0658003828.
Essential oil
Essential oils were first produced by Avicenna in the early 11th century, using steam distillation, giving rise to aromatherapy. As a result, he is regarded as a pioneer of aromatherapy.
See also
★ Unani
★ Bimaristan
★ Islamic Golden Age
★ ''Medical Encyclopedia of Islam and Iran''
References
1. Hakeem Abdul Hameed, Exchanges between India and Central Asia in the field of Medicine
2. Michael Woods, Islam, once at forefront of science, fell by wayside, ''Post-Gazette National Bureau'', Sunday, April 11, 2004.
3. Felix Klein-Frank (2001), ''Al-Kindi'', in Oliver Leaman and Hossein Nasr, ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 172. Routledge, London.
4. Martin-Araguz, A.; Bustamante-Martinez, C.; Fernandez-Armayor, Ajo V.; Moreno-Martinez, J. M. (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", ''Revista de neurología'' '34' (9), p. 877-892.
5. Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture: Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)", ''Becka J.'' '119' (1), p. 17-23.
6. Katharine Park (March 1990). "''Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500'' by Nancy G. Siraisi", ''The Journal of Modern History'' '62' (1), p. 169-170.
7. S. A. Al-Dabbagh (1978). "Ibn Al-Nafis and the pulmonary circulation", ''The Lancet'' '1', p. 1148.
8. S. Hadzovic (1997). "Pharmacy and the great contribution of Arab-Islamic science to its development", ''Med Arh.'' '51' (1-2), p. 47-50.
9. Ingrid Hehmeyer and Aliya Khan (2007). "Islam's forgotten contributions to medical science", ''Canadian Medical Association Journal'' '176' (10).
Further reading
★ Islamic Medicine, , Edward G., Browne, Goodword Books, 2002, ISBN 81-87570-19-9
★ Medieval Islamic Medicine: Ibn Ridwan's Treatise "On the Prevention of Bodily Ills in Egypt", , Michael W., Dols, University of California Press, 1984, ISBN 0520048369
★ Medieval Islamic Medicine, , Peter E., Pormann, Edinburgh University Press, 2007, ISBN 0748620664
★ The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine, , Roy, Porter, Cambridge University Press, 2001, ISBN 0521002524
★ Islamic Medicine, , Manfred, Ullmann, , 1978, ISBN 0852243251
External links
★ Islamic Medical Manuscripts at the National Library of Medicine.
★ Arabic (or Islamic) Influence On the Historical Development of Medicine by Prof. Hamed Abdel-reheem Ead.
★ All about Islamic Medicine for magic, possession and more
★ Contagion - Perspectives from Pre-Modern Societies
★ http://www.islamset.com/bioethics/vision/salami.html
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