JAINISM AND NON-CREATIONISM

Jainism, one of the oldest religions, is a transtheist religion originating in ancient India. The word Jaina is derived from Jina, or the conqueror, which denotes a supremely pure soul. Jainas worship the Jinas, also known as the Tirthankaras (ford-makers). Jainism holds that each soul can become a Jina provided the soul conquers and destroys all its karmas. Jainism thus believes in the existence of god as a supremely pure soul, but does not subscribe to the creationist theory. According to Jain doctrine, the universe and its constituents - soul, matter, space, time, and principles of motion and rest - have always existed. All the constituents and actions are governed by universal natural laws. It is not possible to create matter out of nothing and hence the sum total of matter in the universe remains the same. Similarly, the soul of each living being is unique and uncreated and has existed since beginningless time.^[1] However, Jainism does recognize the concept of godhood, the liberated state of the soul, which is the highest ideal that can be achieved with right knowledge and conduct by all souls. Jains thus believe in absolute religious independence and freedom to man. Nothing can intervene between the actions of man and the fruits thereof.

Contents

Jaina Conception of the Universe

Concept of Reality

Jaina Conception of Divinity

Arhats

Tīrthankaras

Siddhas

Heavenly Beings – Demi-Gods and Demi-Goddesses

Nature of Karmas

The Theory of Material Cause and Effect

Soul, the Master of its Destiny

Jaina Opposition to Creationism

Criticisms of Jaina non-creationist theory

See also

Notes

Citations

References

Jaina Conception of the Universe

According to Jains, this ''loka'' or universe is an uncreated entity, existing since infinity and having no beginning or an end. Jain texts describe the shape of the universe as similar to a man standing with legs apart and arms resting on his waist. Thus, the universe according to Jainism is narrow at top, widens above the middle, narrows towards the middle, and once again becomes broad at the bottom. ^[2]

Concept of Reality

This Universe is made up of what Jainas call the six ''dravyas'' or substances which are classified as follows –

★ '''Jīva''' - 'The living substances'
:Jains believe that souls (Jīva) exist as a reality, having a separate existence from the body that houses it. It is characterised by ''cetana'' (consciousness) and ''upayoga'' (knowledge and perception).^[3] Though the soul experiences both birth and death, it is neither really destroyed nor created. Decay and origin refer respectively to the disappearing of one state of soul and appearance of another state, these being merely the modes of the soul.^[4]

★ '''Ajīva''' - 'Non-Living Substances'

★
★ '''Pudgala''' or 'Matter' - Matter is classified as solid, liquid, gaseous, energy, fine Karmic materials and extra-fine matter or ultimate particles. Paramānu or ultimate particles are considered the basic building block of all matter. One of the qualities of the Paramānu and Pudgala is that of permanence and indestructibility. It combines and changes its modes but its basic qualities remain the same. According to Jainism, it cannot be created nor destroyed.

★
★ '''Dharma-tattva''' or 'Medium of Motion' and '''Adharma-tattva''' or 'Medium of Rest' - Also known as ''Dharmāstikāya'' and ''Adharmāstikāya'', they are distinctly peculiar to the Jain system of thought depicting the principles of motion and rest. They are said to pervade the entire universe. Dharma-tattva and Adharma-tattva are by itself not motion or rest but mediate motion and rest in other bodies. Without Dharmāstikāya motion is not possible and without Adharmāstikāya rest is not possible in the Universe.

★
★ '''Ākāśa''' or 'Space' - Space is a substance that accommodates living souls, matter, the principle of motion, the principle of rest, and time. It is all-pervading, infinite and made of infinite space-points.

★
★ '''Kāla''' or 'Time' - Time is a real entity according to Jainism and all activities, changes or modifications can be achieved only through time. In Jainism, the time is likened to a wheel with twelve spokes divided into descending and ascending half with six stages of immense durations, each estimated at billions of sagaropama or ocean years. ^[5] According to Jains, at each progressive descending stage, the sorrow increases and at each progressive ascending stage, happiness and bliss increases.
These are the uncreated existing constituents of the universe which impart the necessary dynamics to the universe by interacting with each other. These constituents behave according to the natural laws and their nature without interference from external entities. ''Dharma'' or true religion according to Jainism is ''vatthu sahāvo dhammo'' translated as "the intrinsic nature of a substance is its true dharma."

Jaina Conception of Divinity

According to Jainism, gods can be categorized into ''Tīrthankaras, Arihants'' or ordinary ''Kevalin'' and ''Siddhas''. Jainism considers the ''Devīs'' and ''Devas'' to be demi-goddesses and demi-gods who dwell in heavens owing to meritorious deeds in their past lives.

Arhats

Arhats, also known as Arihantas or Kevalins, are gods in embodied states who ultimately become Siddhas, or liberated souls, at the time of their ''nirvana''. An Arhat is a soul who has destroyed all passions, is totally unattached and without any desire and hence is able to destroy the four ''ghātiyā karmas'' and attain kevalajñāna, or omniscience. Such a soul still has a body and four ''aghātiyā karmas''. An Arhat, at the end of his lifespan, destroys his remaining ''aghātiyā karma'' and becomes a Siddha.

Tīrthankaras

Tīrthankaras (also known as Jinas) are Arhats who are teachers and revivers of the Jain philosophy. There are 24 Tīrthankaras in each time cycle; ''Mahāvīra'' was the 24th and last Tīrthankara of the current time cycle. Tīrthankaras are literally the ford makers who have who have shown the way across the ocean of re-birth and transmigration and hence have become a focus of reverence and worship amongst Jains. However it would be a mistake to regard the Tīrthankaras as gods analogous to the gods of Hindu pantheon despite the superficial resemblances in Jain and Hindu way of worship.^[6] Tīrthankaras like Arhats ultimately become Siddhas on liberation. Tīrthankaras, being liberated, are beyond any kind of transactions with the rest of the universe. They are not the beings who exercise any sort of creative activity or who have the capacity or ability to intervene in answers to prayers.

Siddhas

Ultimately all Arhats and Tīrthankaras become Siddhas. A Siddha is a soul who is permanently liberated from the transmigratory cycle of birth and death. Such a soul, having realized its true self, is free from all the Karmas and embodiment. They are formless and dwell in Siddhashila (the realm of the liberated beings) at the apex of the universe in infinite bliss, infinite perception, infinite knowledge and infinite energy.
The ''Acāranga sūtra'' 1.197 describes Siddhas in this way –
Siddhahood is the ultimate goal of all souls. There are infinite souls who have become Siddhas and infinite more who will attain this state of liberation. According to Jainism, the Godhood is not a monopoly of some omnipotent and powerful being(s). All souls, with right perception, knowledge and conduct can achieve self realisation and attain this state. Once achieving this state of infinite bliss and having destroyed all desires, the soul is not concerned with the worldly matters and does not interfere in the working of universe, as any activity or desire to interfere will once again result in influx of karmas and thus loss of liberation.
Jains pray to these passionless Gods not for any favors or rewards but rather pray to the qualities of the God with the objective of destroying the Karmas and achieving the Godhood. This is best understood by the term – ''vandetadgunalabhdhaye'' i.e. we pray to the attributes of such Gods to acquire such attributes” ^[7]

Heavenly Beings – Demi-Gods and Demi-Goddesses

Jainism describes existence of śāsanadevatās and śāsanadevīs, the attendant Gods and Goddesses of Tīrthankaras, who create the samavasarana or the divine preaching assembly of a Tīrthankara. Such heavenly beings are classified as:-

★ Bhavanpatis - Gods dwelling in abodes

★ Vyantaras - Intermediary gods

★ Jyotiskas - Luminaries

★ Vaimānikas - Astral gods
The souls on account of accumulation of meritorious karmas reincarnate in heavens as demi-gods. Although their life span is quite long, after their merit karmas are exhausted, they once again have to reincarnate back into the realms of humans, animals or hells depending on their karmas. As these Gods themselves are not liberated, they have attachments and passions and hence not worthy of worship.
Ācārya Hemacandra decries the worship of such Gods –
Worship of such gods is considered as ''mithyātva'' or wrong belief leading to bondage of karmas. However, many Jains are known to worship to such gods for material gains.

Nature of Karmas

According to Robert Zydendos, karma in Jainism can be considered a kind of system of laws, but natural rather than moral laws. In Jainism, actions that carry moral significance are considered to cause certain consequences in just the same way as, for instance, physical actions that do not carry any special moral significance. When one holds an apple in one's hand and then let go of the apple, the apple will fall: this is only natural. There is no judge, and no moral judgment involved, since this is a mechanical consequence of the physical action. ^[8]
Hence in accordance with the natural karmic laws, consequences occur when one utters a lie, steals something, commits acts of senseless violence or leads the life of a debauchee. Rather than assume that moral rewards and retribution are the work of a divine judge, the Jains believe that there is an innate moral order to the cosmos, self-regulating through the workings of karma. Morality and ethics are important not because of the personal whim of a fictional god, but because a life that is led in agreement with moral and ethical principles is beneficial: it leads to a decrease and finally to the total loss of karma, which means: to ever increasing happiness. ^[9]
Karmas are often wrongly interpreted as a method for reward and punishment of a soul for its good and bad deeds. In Jainism, there is no question of there being any reward or punishment, as each soul is the master of its own destiny. The karmas can be said to represent a sum total of all unfulfilled desires of a soul. They enable the soul to experience the various themes of the lives that it desires to experience.^[10] They ultimately mature when the necessary supportive conditions required for maturity are fulfilled.^[11] Hence a soul may transmigrate from one life form to another for countless of years, taking with it the karmas that it has earned, until it finds conditions that bring about the fruits.
Hence whatever suffering or pleasure that a soul may be experiencing now is on account of choices that it has made in past. That is why Jainism stresses pure thinking and moral behavior. Apart from Buddhism, perhaps Jainism is the only religion that does not invoke the fear of God as a reason for moral behavior.
The karmic theory in Jainism operates endogenously. Tirthankaras are not attributed "absolute godhood" under Jainism. Thus, even the Tirthankaras themselves have to go through the stages of emanicipation, for attaining that state. While Buddhism does give a similar and to some extent a matching account for Shri Gautama Buddha, Hinduism maintains a totally different theory where "divine grace" is needed for emanicipation.
The following quote in ''Bhagavatī Ārādhanā'' (1616) sums up the predominance of karmas in Jain doctrine:-
Thus it is not the so called all embracing omnipotent God, but the law of karma that is the all governing force responsible for the manifest differences in the status, attainments and happiness of all life forms. It operates as a self-sustaining mechanism as natural universal law, without any need of an external entity to manage them.

The Theory of Material Cause and Effect

According to Jainism, causes are of two types – ''Upādanā kārana'' (substantial or material cause) and ''Nimitta kārana'' (instrumental cause). Upādanā kārana is always identical with its effect. ^[12] For example out of clay, you can only produce a clay pot; hence the clay is the upādanā kārana or material cause and clay pot its effect. Wherever the effect is present, the cause is present and vice versa. The effect is always present in latent form in the material cause. For transforming the clay to pot, the potter, the wheel, the stick and other operating agents are required that are merely nimitta or instrumental cause or catalysts in transformation. The material cause always remains the clay. Hence the cause and effect are always entirely identical in nature. Potter cannot be the material cause of pot. If this were the case, then Potter might as well prepare the pot without any clay. But this is not so. Thus a clay pot can only be made from clay; gold ornaments can be made only from gold. Similarly the different modes of existence of a soul are a result of activities of soul itself. There cannot be any contradiction or exceptions.
In such a scenario, Jains argue that the material cause of a living soul with cetana (conscious entity) is always the soul itself and cause of dead inert matter (non-cetana i.e. without any consciousness) is always the matter itself. ^[13] If God is indeed the creator, then this is an impossible predication as the same cause will be responsible for two contradictory effects of cetana (life) and acetana (matter). ^[14] This logically precludes an immaterial God (a conscious entity) from creating this Universe, which is made up of material substances.

Soul, the Master of its Destiny

According to Jainism, Soul is the master of its own destiny. One of the qualities of the soul is complete lordship of its own destiny.^[15] The soul alone chooses its actions and soul alone reaps its consequences. No God or prophet or angel can interfere in the actions or the destiny of the soul. Furthermore, it is the soul alone who makes the necessary efforts to achieve liberation without any divine grace. ^{[16] [17]}
Jains frequently assert that “we are alone” in this world. Amongst the twelve contemplations (anupreksas) of Jains, one of them is the loneliness of ones soul and nature of the universe and transmigration. Hence only by cleansing our soul by our own actions can we help ourselves.^[18]
Jainism thus lays a strong emphasis on the efforts and the freewill of the soul to achieve the desired goal of liberation.

Jaina Opposition to Creationism

Jain scriptures reject God as the creator of universe. 12th century Ācārya Hemacandra puts forth the Jain view of universe in Yogaśāstra as thus –
Besides scriptural authority, Jains also resorted to syllogism and deductive reasoning to refute the creationist theories. Various views on divinity and universe held by the vedics, sāmkhyas, mimimsas, Buddhists and other school of thoughts were analysed, debated and repudiated by the various Jain Ācāryas. However the most eloquent refutation of this view is provided by Ācārya Jinasena in Mahāpurāna as thus –

Criticisms of Jaina non-creationist theory

Jainism along with Buddhism has been categorized as atheist philosophy i.e. ''Nāstika darśana'' by the followers of Vedic religion. However, the word Nāstika corresponds more to heterodox rather than atheism. Accordingly, those who did not believe in Vedas and rejected Brahma as the creator of Universe were labeled as Nāstika.
Similar reasons led Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson, an Irish missionary, to declare that “the heart of Jainism is empty”. While making a fervent appeal to accept Christianity, she says that Jains strongly believe in duty of forgiving others, and yet have no hope of forgiveness by a higher power for them. ^[19] Quite apparently her book “The Heart of Jainism” was written from missionary point of view without having regard to Jain sensibilities.
If atheism is defined as disbelief in existence of God, then Jainism cannot be labeled as atheistic, as it not only believes in existence of God but also of the soul which can attain godhood. As Paul Dundas puts it – “while Jainism is, as we have seen, atheist in a limited sense of rejection of both the existence of a creator God and the possibility of intervention of such a being in human affairs, it nonetheless must be regarded as a theist religion in the more profound sense that it accepts the existence of divine principle, the paramātmā i.e. God, existing in potential state within all beings”. ^[20]
The Jaina position on God and religion from a perspective of a non-jain can be summed up in the words of Anne Vallely.

See also

★ Creationism

★ Hinduism and creationism

★ History of creationism

★ Origin belief

★ Jainism

★ Jain cosmology

★ Karma in Jainism

Notes

'a.' Self is not an effect as it is not produced by anything nor it is a cause as it does not produce anything. Samayasāra Gāthā 10.310 See Nayanara (2005b)
'b.' See Vācaka Umāsvāti's decription of the Universe in his Tattvārthasutra and Ācārya Hemacandras description of the universe in Yogaśāstra “…Picture a man standing with his arms akimbo - This is how Jainas believe the Loka looks like. 4.103-6
'c.' See Kārtikeyānupreksā, 478 - Dharma is nothing but the real nature of an object. Just as the nature of fire is to burn and the nature of water is to produce a cooling effect, in the same manner, the essential nature of the soul is to seek self-realization and spiritual elevation .
'd.' Vamdittu savvasiddhe .... [Samaysara 1.1] See Samaysara of Ācārya Kundakunda, Tr. By Prof A. Chakaravarti, page 1 of main text – "Jainism recognizes plurality of selves not only in world of samsara but also in the liberated state or siddhahood which is a sort of a divine republic of perfect souls where each soul retains its individual personality and does not empty its contents into the cauldron of the absolute as is maintained by other systems of philosophy"
'e.' See Tattvārthasūtra 1.1 ''"samyagdarśanajñānacāritrānimoksamārgah"'' - Translated as "Rational Perception, Rational Knowledge and Rational Conduct constitutes the path to liberation."
'f.' See Sarvārthasiddhi ''"Moksa mārgasya netāram bhettāram karmabhubrutām jnātāram vishva tatvānām vande tadguna labhdhaye."'' Translated as "We pray to those who have led the path to salvation,who have destroyed the mountains of karma, and who know the reality of the universe. We pray to them to acquire their attributes."
'g.' See Samayasāra 3.99-100] "If soul were indeed the producer of alien substances, then he must be of that nature; as it is not so, he cannot be their creator"
'h.' See Hemcandrācārya, Yogaśāstra. ''"eik utpadyate janturek eiv vipadyate"'' Translated as "each one is born alone and dies alone."
'i.' ''"Nishpaadito Na Kenaapi Na Dhritah Kenachichch Sah Swayamsiddho Niradhaaro Gagane Kimtvavasthitah"''. see Ācārya Hemacandra, (1989). In: S. Bothara (ed.),Dr. A. S. Gopani (Tr.),Yogaśāstra(Sanskrit). Jaipur: Prakrit Bharti Academy. Sutra 4.106
'j.' This quote from Mahapurana finds a mention in “Salters Horners Advanced Physics” by Jonathan Allda, which contains various scientific theories on Universe. The author quotes this extract from Mahapurana to show that Cosmology (the study of Universe) is an ancient science, which today is still probing some of the deepest questions about the origins and future of the Universe. (P 268)

Citations

1. Nayanar (2005b), p.190, Gāthā 10.310
2. Gopani (1989), Gāthā 4.103-6
3. Nayanar (2005a), Gāthā 16
4. Nayanar(2005a), Gāthā 18
5. James (1969) p. 45
6. Thrower (1980), p.93
7. Nayanar (2005b), p.35 Gāthā 1.29
8. Zydenbos (2006)
9. Zydenbos (2006)
10. Kuhn (2001)
11. Acharya Umasvati, Tattvartha Sutra, Ch VIII, Sutra 21
12. Nayanar (2005b), p.107
13. Nayanar (2005b), p. 189, Gāthā 10.308-9
14. Nayanar (2005b), p. 73, Gāthā 2.85
15. Nayanar (2005a), Gatha 27
16. Nayanar (2005a), Gāthā 29
17. Ācārya Amrtacandra Sūri, Laghutattvasphota, Sūtra 156
18. Vallely (1980), p.182
19. Stevenson (1999) (Original 1915) p. 289
20. Dundas (2002 p.111

References

★ The Jains, , Paul, Dundas, Routledge, ,

★ Yogaśāstra (Sanskrit) of Ācārya Hemacandra, , A. S., Gopani, Prakrit Bharti Academy, ,

★ Ācāranga Sūtra, Jain Sutras Part I, Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 22., , Hermann, Jacobi, , ,

★ Creation and Cosmology: A Historical and Comparative Inquiry, , Edwin Oliver, James, BRILL, ,

★ Karma, The Mechanism : Create Your Own Fate, , Hermann, Kuhn, Crosswind Publishing, ,

★ Pañcāstikāyasāra of Ācārya Kundakunda, , Prof. A. Chakravarti, Nayanar, Today & Tomorrows Printer and Publisher, ,

★ Samayasāra of Ācārya Kundakunda, , Prof. A. Chakravarti, Nayanar, Today & Tomorrows Printer and Publisher, ,

★ Heart of Jainism, , M.Sinclair, Stevenson, Munshiram Manoharial Publishers Private, Limited, ,

★ Alternative Tradition: religion and the rejection of religion in the Ancient World, , James, Thrower, Walter de Gruyter, ,

★ Guardians of the Transcendent: An Ethnography of a Jain Ascetic Community., , Anne, Vallely, University of Toronto Press, ,

★ Jainism Today and Its Future, , Rober J., Zydenbos, Muenchen, ,