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are Americans of Japanese descent who trace their ancestry to Japan or Okinawa and are residents and/or citizens of the United States. Japan is a western Pacific Ocean multi-archipelagic nation east of China in Asia. Japanese Americans are a subgroup of East Asian Americans, which is further a subgroup of Asian Americans. Okinawa, a former independent nation, was annexed by Japan in the late nineteenth century. Japanese Americans have historically been among the three largest Asian American communities, but in recent decades have become the sixth largest (at roughly 1,204,205, including those of mixed-race or mixed-ethnicity). In the 2000 cenus, the largest Japanese American communities were in California with 394,896, Hawaii with 296,674, Washington with 56,210, New York with 45,237, and Illinois with 27,702. Each year, about 7,000 new Japanese immigrants enter United States ports, comprising about 4% of immigration from Asia; net migration, however, is significantly lower because some older Japanese Americans have been moving to Japan.

Contents

Cultural Profile

Generations

Languages

Education

Economics

Religion

Celebrations

History

Immigration

Internment

Redress

Life Under United States Policies Before & After World War II

Farming

Politics

Neighborhoods and communities

Notable individuals

Notes and references

See also

External links

Cultural Profile

Generations

Japanese Americans have special names for each of its generations in the United States. The first generation born in Japan or Okinawa, is called ''Issei'' (一世). The second generation is ''Nisei'' (二世), third is ''Sansei'' (三世), fourth is ''Yonsei'' (四世) and fifth is ''Gosei'' (五世). The term ''Nikkei'' (日系) was coined by Japanese American sociologists and encompasses the entire population across generations.

Languages

''Issei'' and many ''Nisei'' speak Japanese or Okinawan in addition to English as a second language. In general, later generations of Japanese Americans speak English as their first language, though some do learn Japanese later as a second language. In Hawaii however, where Nisei are about one-fifth of the whole population, Japanese is a major language, spoken and studied by many of the state's residents across ethnicities. It is taught in private Japanese language schools as early as the second grade. As a courtesy to the large number of Japanese tourists (from Japan), Japanese subtexts are provided on place signs, public transportation, and civic facilities. The Hawaii media market has a few locally produced Japanese language newspapers and magazines, however these are on the verge of dying out, due to a lack of interest on the part of the local (Hawaii-born) Japanese population. Stores that cater to the tourist industry often have Japanese-speaking personnel.

Education

Japanese American culture places great value on education. Across generations, parents tend to instill their children with a deep value for higher education. As a result of such cultural ambition, math and reading scores on standardized tests often exceeds national averages. They fill gifted classrooms and have the largest showing of any ethnic group in nationwide Advanced Placement testing each year.
Most Japanese Americans obtain advanced college degrees. Japanese Americans once again face stereotyping as dominating the sciences in colleges and universities across the United States, while in reality, there is an equal distribution of Japanese Americans across academic disciplines in the arts and humanities in addition to the sciences.

Economics

As a result of Japanese American educational prowess, the Japanese American community generally tends to enjoy above average economic status. However, with the exception of Hawaii, Japanese Americans still face racial discrimination in non-government and non-medical industries.

Religion

Japanese Americans (commonly) practice a wide range of religions, including Mahayana Buddhism (Jodo Shinshu, Jodo Shu, Nichiren, and Zen forms being most prominent) which is the majority, Shinto, and Christianity. In many ways, due to the longstanding nature of Buddhist and Shinto practices in Japanese society, many of the cultural values and traditions commonly associated with Japanese tradition have been strongly influenced by these religious forms.
A large number of the Japanese American community continue to practice Buddhism in some form, and a number of community traditions and festivals continue to center around Buddhist institutions. For example, one of the most popular community festivals is the annual Obon Festival, which occurs in the summer, and provides an opportunity for young and old to reconnect with their customs and traditions. These kinds of festivals are most popular in communities with large populations of Japanese Americans, such as in southern California or Hawaii. It should be noted however, that many Japanese people both in and out of Japan are secular as Shinto and Buddhism is most often practiced by rituals such as marriages or funerals, and not through faithful worship, as defines religion for many Americans.
For Japanese American Christians, the church is one of the most important cultural foundations. In California, Hawaii and Washington, congregations can be comprised entirely of Japanese Americans. In the rest of the country they tend to be accepted in predominately white churches.

Celebrations

Japanese American celebrations tend to be more sectarian in nature and focus on the community-sharing aspects. An important annual festival for Japanese Americans is the Obon Festival, which happens in July or August of each year. Across the country, Japanese Americans gather on fair grounds and large civic parking lots and commemorate the memory of their ancestors and their families through folk dances and food. Carnival booths are usually set up so Japanese American children have the opportunity to play together.

'Major Celebrations in the United States'

Date	Name	Region
January 1	Shōgatsu New Year's Celebration	nationwide
February	Japanese Heritage Fair	Honolulu, HI
February to March	Cherry Blossom Festival	Honolulu, HI
March 3	Hina Matsuri (Girls' Day)	nationwide
March	Honolulu Festival	Honolulu, HI
March	Hawaii International Taiko Festival	Honolulu, HI
March	International Cherry Blossom Festival	Macon, GA
March to April	National Cherry Blossom Festival	Washington, DC
April	Northern California Cherry Blossom Festival	San Francisco, CA
April	Pasadena Cherry Blossom Festival	Pasadena, CA
April		Seattle, WA
May 5	Tango no Sekku (Boys' Day)	nationwide
May	Shinnyo-En Toro-Nagashi (Memorial Day Floating Lantern Ceremony)	Honolulu, HI
June	Pan-Pacific Festival Matsuri in Hawaii	Honolulu, HI
July 7	Tanabata Festival	nationwide
July-August	Obon Festival	nationwide
August	Nihonmachi Street Fair	San Francisco, CA
August	Nisei Week / Tofu Festival	Los Angeles, CA

History

Main articles: Japanese American history

The history of Japanese Americans begins in the mid nineteenth century.

★ '1841', June 27 Captain Whitfield, commanding a New England sailing vessel, rescues five shipwrecked Japanese sailors. Four disembark at Honolulu, however Manjiro Nakahama stays on board returning with Whitfield to Fairhaven, Massachusetts. After attending school in New England and adopting the name John Manjiro, he later became an interpreter for Commodore Matthew Perry.

★ '1850', seventeen survivors of a Japanese shipwreck were saved by the American freighter ''Auckland''. They became the first Japanese people to reach California. In 1852, the group was sent to Macao to join Commodore Matthew Perry as a gesture to help open diplomatic relations with Japan. One of them, Joseph Heco (Hikozo Hamada) went on to become the first Japanese person to become a naturalized US citizen.

★ '1861' The utopian minister Thomas Lake Harris of the Brotherhood of the New Life visits England, where he meets Nagasawa Kanaye, who becomes a convert. Nagasawa returns to the US with Harris and follows him to Fountaingrove in Santa Rosa, California. When Harris leaves the Californian commune, Nagasawa became the leader and remained there until his death in 1932.

★ '1869', A group of Japanese people arrive at Gold Hills, California and build the Wakamatsu Tea and Silk Colony. Okei becomes the first recorded Japanese woman to die and be buried in the US.

★ '1890', First wave of Japanese immigrants to provide labor in Hawaii sugarcane and pineapple plantations, California fruit and produce farms

★ '1893' The San Francisco Education Board attempts to introduce segregation for Japanese American children, but withdraws the measure following protests by the Japanese government.

★ '1900s', Japanese begin to lease land and sharecrop

★ '1902', Yone Noguchi publishes the ''The American Diary of a Japanese Girl'', the first Japanese American novel

★ '1907', Gentlemen's Agreement between United States and Japan that Japan would stop issuing passports for new laborers

★ '1908', Japanese picture brides enter the United States

★ '1913', California Alien Land Law of 1913 ban Japanese from purchasing land; whites threatened by Japanese success in independent farming ventures

★ '1924', United States Immigration Act of 1924 banned immigration from Japan

★ '1930s', ''Issei'' become economically stable for the first time in California and Hawaii

★ '1941', Japan air force attacked Honolulu; U.S. federal government arrest Japanese community leaders

★ '1942', U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs Executive Order 9066 on February 19, uprooting Japanese Americans on the west coast to be sent to Internment camps.

★ '1943', Japanese American soldiers from Hawaii join the U.S. Army 100th Battalion arrive in Europe.

★ '1944', Ben Kuroki became the only Japanese-American in the U.S. Army Air Force to serve in combat operations in the Pacific Ocean theater of World War II.

★ '1944', U.S. Army 100th Battalion merges with the all-volunteer Japanese American 442nd Regimental Combat Team

★ '1945', 442nd Regimental Combat team awarded 18,143 decorations including 9,486 Purple Heart decorations becoming the highest decorated military unit in United States history

★ '1959', Daniel K. Inouye becomes the first Japanese American in Congress

★ '1963', Daniel K. Inouye becomes the first Japanese American in the US Senate

★ '1965', Patsy T. Mink becomes the first woman of color in Congress

★ '1971', Norman Y. Mineta elected mayor of San Jose, California; becomes first Asian American mayor of a major US city

★ '1974', George R. Ariyoshi becomes the first Japanese American governor in the State of Hawaii

★ '1976', Samuel Ichiye (S. I.) Hayakawa of California and Spark Matsunaga of Hawaii become the second and third Japanese American US Senators

★ '1978', Ellison S. Onizuka becomes the first Asian American astronaut

★ '1980', Congress creates Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians to investigate World War II unjust policies against Japanese Americans

★ '1983', Commission reports Japanese American internment was not a national security necessity

★ '1988', U.S. President Ronald Reagan signs Civil Liberties Act of 1988 apologizing for Japanese American internment and provide reparations of $20,000 to each victim

★ '1992', Kristi Yamaguchi becomes the first Japanese American to win a Olympic Gold medal in women's figureskating.

★ '1994', Mazie K. Hirono becomes the first Japanese immigrant elected state lieutenant governor

★ '1998', Chris Tashima becomes the first Japanese American (American-born) actor to win an Academy Award (''Visas and Virtue'')

★ '1999', Gen. Eric Shinseki becomes the first Asian American U.S. military chief of staff

★ '2000', Norman Y. Mineta becomes the first Asian American appointed to the U.S. Cabinet; worked as Commerce Secretary (2000-2001), Transportation Secretary (2001-2006)

Immigration

People from Japan began migrating to the U.S. in significant numbers following the political, cultural, and social changes stemming from the 1868 Meiji Restoration. Particularly after the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, Japanese immigrants were sought by industrialists to replace the Chinese immigrants. In 1907, the "Gentlemen's Agreement" between the governments of Japan and the U.S. ended immigration of Japanese workers (i.e., men), but permitted the immigration of spouses of Japanese immigrants already in the U.S. The Immigration Act of 1924 banned the immigration of all but a token few Japanese.
The ban on immigration produced unusually well-defined generational groups within the Japanese American community. Initially, there was an immigrant generation, the Issei, and their U.S.-born children, the Nisei. The Issei were exclusively those who had immigrated before 1924. Because no new immigrants were permitted, all Japanese Americans born after 1924 were--by definition--born in the U.S. This generation, the Nisei, became a distinct cohort from the Issei generation in terms of age, citizenship, and English language ability, in addition to the usual generational differences. Institutional and interpersonal racism led many of the Nisei to marry other Nisei, resulting in a third distinct generation of Japanese Americans, the Sansei. Significant Japanese immigration did not occur until the Immigration Act of 1965 ended 40 years of bans against immigration from Japan and other countries.
The Naturalization Act of 1790 restricted naturalized U.S. citizenship to "free white persons," which excluded the Issei from citizenship. As a result, the Issei were unable to vote, and faced additional restrictions such as the inability to own land under many state laws.
Japanese Americans were parties in several important Supreme Court decisions, including ''Ozawa v. United States'' (1922) and ''Korematsu v. United States'' (1943). Korematsu is the origin of the "strict scrutiny" standard, which is applied, with great controversy, in government considerations of race since the 1989 ''Adarand Constructors v. Peña'' decision.
In recent years, immigration from Japan has been more like that from Western Europe: low and usually related to marriages between U.S. citizens and Japanese. The number is on average 5 to 10 thousand per year, and is similar to the amount of immigration to the U.S. from Germany. This is in stark contrast to the rest of Asia, where family reunification is the primary impetus for immigration. Japanese Americans also have the oldest demographic structure of any non-white ethnic group in the U.S.; in addition, in the younger generations, due to intermarriage with whites, non-whites, and other Asian groups, part-Japanese are more common than full Japanese, and it appears as if this physical assimilation will continue at a rapid rate.

Internment

Main articles: Japanese American internment




One of the darkest parts of American history were the Japanese American internment camps; an estimated 120,000 Japanese were sent to eleven different camps across the US, mostly in the west. During World War II, Japanese Americans were interned in special camps. Americans of Japanese ancestry living in the western United States, including the Nisei, were forcibly interned with their parents and children (the Sansei Japanese Americans) during World War II.
Many Japanese Americans served with great distinction during World War II in the American forces. The 442nd Regimental Combat Team/100th Infantry Battalion is one of the most highly decorated unit in U.S. military history. Composed of Japanese Americans, the 442nd/100th fought valiantly in the European Theater. The 100th was one of the first units to liberate the prisoners of the Nazi concentration camp at Dachau. Hawaii Senator Daniel K. Inouye is a veteran of the 442nd. Additionally the Military Intelligence Service consisted of Japanese Americans who served in the Pacific Front.
For the most part, the internees remained in the camps until the end of the war, when they left the camps to rebuild their lives in the West Coast. Several Japanese Americans have started cases against the U.S. government regarding their wrongful internment, which dragged on for decades.

Redress

Main articles: Japanese American Redress & Court Cases

In the U.S., the right to redress is defined as a constitutional right, as it is decreed in the First Amendment to the Constitution.
Redress may be defined as follows:

★ 1. the setting right of what is wrong: redress of abuses.

★ 2. relief from wrong or injury.

★ 3. compensation or satisfaction from a wrong or injury.
Reparation is defined as:

★ 1. the making of amends for wrong or injury done: reparation for an injustice.

★ 2. Usually, reparations. compensation in money, material, labor, etc., payable by a defeated country to another country or to an individual for loss suffered during or as a result of war.

★ 3. restoration to good condition.

★ 4. repair. (“Legacies of Incarceration,” 2002)
The campaign for redress against internment was launched by Japanese Americans in 1978. The Japanese American Citizens’ League (JACL) asked for three measures to be taken as redress: $25,000 to be awarded to each person who was detained, an apology from Congress acknowledging publicly that the U.S. government had been wrong, and the release of funds to set up an educational foundation for the children of Japanese American families. Under the 2001 budget of the United States, it was also decreed that the ten sites on which the detainee camps were set up are to be preserved as historical landmarks: “places like Manzanar, Tule Lake, Heart Mountain, Topaz, Amache, Jerome, and Rohwer will forever stand as reminders that this nation failed in its most sacred duty to protect its citizens against prejudice, greed, and political expediency” (Tateishi and Yoshino 2000). Each of these concentration camps was surrounded by barbed wire and contained at least ten thousand forced detainees.

Life Under United States Policies Before & After World War II

Main articles: Japanese American Life Pre-World War II

Main articles: Japanese American Life Post-World War II

Like most of the American population, Japanese immigrants came to the U.S. in search of a better life. Some planned to stay and build families here in the states, while others wanted to save money from working stateside to better themselves in the country from which they had come. Before the Attack on Pearl Harbor, Japanese residents experienced a moderate level of hardship that was pretty typical for any minority group at the time.

Farming

Japanese Americans have made significant contributions to the agriculture of the western United States, particularly in California and Hawaii. Nineteenth century Japanese immigrants introduced sophisticated irrigation methods that enabled the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, and flowers on previously marginal lands. While the Issei (1st generation Japanese Americans) prospered in the early 20th century, most lost their farms during the internment. Although this was the case, Japanese Americans remain involved in these industries today, particularly in southern California.
Japanese American detainees irrigated and cultivated lands nearby the World War II internment camps, which were located in desolate spots such as Poston, in the Arizona desert, and Tule Lake, California, at a dry mountain lake bed. Due to their tenacious efforts, these farm lands remain productive today.

Politics

Japanese Americans have shown strong support for candidates in both political parties. Leading up to the 2004 U.S. Presidential Election, Japanese Americans narrowly favored Democrat John Kerry by a 42% to 38% margin over Republican George W. Bush. [1]

Neighborhoods and communities

★ Bakersfield, California

★ Denver, Colorado, note Sakura Square

★ Fresno, California

★ Hawaii, where a quarter of the population is of Japanese descent.

★ Los Angeles, California, includes the Little Tokyo section

★ Monterey County, California, especially Salinas, California

★ Portland, Oregon

★ Sacramento, California

★ San Diego, California

★ San Francisco, California, notably the Japantown section.

★ San Jose, California

★ Santa Cruz County, California

★ Seattle, Washington

★ Southern California has sporadic Japanese American communities

★ Walnut Creek, California, located east of Oakland, California

Notable individuals

After the Territory of Hawaii's statehood in 1959, Japanese American political empowerment took a step forward with the election of Daniel K. Inouye to Congress. Inouye's success led to the gradual acceptance of Japanese American leadership on the national stage, culminating in the appointments of Eric Shinseki and Norman Y. Mineta, the first Japanese American military chief of staff and federal cabinet secretary, respectively.
Many Japanese Americans have also gained prominence in the arts and sciences. These include Minoru Yamasaki, architect of the World Trade Center, and Ellison Onizuka, the first Asian American astronaut and the mission specialist aboard ''Challenger'' at the time of its explosion. Poet laureate of San Francisco Janice Mirikitani has published three volumes of poems. Artist Sueo Serisawa helped establish the California Impressionist style of painting.
Japanese Americans first made an impact in Olympic sports in the late 1940s and in the 1950s. Harold Sakata won a weightlifting silver medal in the 1948 Olympics, while Japanese Americans Tommy Kono (weightlifting), Yoshinobu Oyakawa (100-meter backstroke), and Ford Konno (1500-meter freestyle) each won gold and set Olympic records in the 1952 Olympics. Konno won another gold and silver swimming medal at the same Olympics and added a silver medal in 1956, while Kono set another Olympic weightlifting record in 1956. Also at the 1952 Olympics, Evelyn Kawamoto won two bronze medals in swimming.
More recently, Eric Sato won gold (1988) and bronze (1992) medals in volleyball, while his sister Liane Sato won bronze in the same sport in 1992. Hapa Bryan Clay won the silver medal in the 2004 decathlon and was the sport's 2005 world champion. Apolo Anton Ohno won five Olympic medals in short-track speed skating (two gold) in 2002 and 2006, as well as a world cup championship.
In figure skating, Kristi Yamaguchi won three national championships (one individual, two in pairs), two world titles, and the 1992 Olympic Gold medal. Rena Inoue took first place in the 2004 and 2006 U.S. Figure Skating Championships Pairs competition.
In distance running, Miki (Michiko) Gorman won the Boston and New York City marathons twice in the 1970s. A former American record holder at the distance, she is the only woman to win both races twice, and is the only woman to win both marathons in the same year.
In professional sports, Wataru Misaka broke the NBA color barrier in the 1947-48 season, when he played for the New York Knicks. Misaka also played a key role in Utah's NCAA and NIT basketball championships in 1944 and 1947. Lindsey Yamasaki was the first Asian American to play in the WNBA and finished off her NCAA career with the third-highest career 3-pointers at Stanford University.
Hikaru Nakamura became the youngest American ever to earn the titles of National Master (age 10) and International Grandmaster (age 15) in chess. In 2004, at the age of 16, he won the U.S. Chess Championship.
George Takei (of ''Star Trek'' fame) and Pat Morita (''Happy Days'') helped pioneer acting roles for Asian Americans while playing secondary roles on the small screen during the 1960s and 1970s. Today, Masi Oka plays a prominent role in the NBC series ''Heroes''.
Notable Japanese American musicians include singer, actress and Broadway star Pat Suzuki, rapper Mike Shinoda of Linkin Park, and singer, voice actress and Japanese expatriate Mari Iijima.

Notes and references

1. US Census Bureau, Japanese alone or in combination in 2005



★ Lai, Eric, and Dennis Arguelles, eds. "The New Face of Asian Pacific America: Numbers, Diversity, and Change in the 21st Century." San Francisco, CA: Asian Week, 2003.

★ Kikumura-Yano, Akemi, ed. "Encyclopedia of Japanese Descendants in the Americas." Walnut Creek, CA: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2002.

See also

★ Asian American

★ Asian Canadian

★ Japanese American Citizens League

★ Japanese Canadian

★ Japanese people

★ Nisei Baseball Research Project

★ Pacific Movement of the Eastern World

External links

★ Japanese American National Museum

★ Embassy of Japan in Washington, DC

★ Japanese American Citizens League

★ Japanese Cultural & Community Center of Northern California

★ Japanese American Community and Cultural Center of Southern California

★ Japanese American Historical Society

★ Densho: The Japanese American Legacy Project

★ Japanese American Museum of San Jose, California

★ Japanese American Network

★ Japanese-American's own companies in USA

★ Japanese American Relocation Digital Archives

★ Photo Exhibit of Japanese American community in Florida

★ The Asians in America Project - Japanese American Organizations Directory

★ Nikkei Federation

★ Discover Nikkei

★ Summary of a panel discussion on changing Japanese American identities