'Jerome' (ca.
347 –
September 30,
420; , ) is best known as the translator of the
Bible from
Greek and
Hebrew into
Latin. He also was a
Christian apologist. Jerome's edition, the ''
Vulgate'', is still an important biblical text of the
Roman Catholic Church. He is recognized by the
Roman Catholic Church as a
canonized Saint and
Doctor of the Church. He is also recognized as a saint by the
Eastern Orthodox Church, where he is known as 'St. Jerome of Stridonium' or 'Blessed Jerome' ("Blessed" in this context does not have the sense of being less than a saint, as in the West).
In the artistic tradition of the Roman Catholic Church it has been usual to represent him, the patron of theological learning, as a
cardinal, by the side of the Bishop
Augustine, the Archbishop
Ambrose, and the
Pope Gregory I. Even when he is depicted as a half-clad
anchorite, with cross, skull, and Bible for the only furniture of his cell, the red hat or some other indication of his rank is as a rule introduced somewhere in the picture. He is also often depicted with a lion, due to a medieval story in which he removed a thorn from a lion's paw,
[1] and, less often, an owl, the symbol of wisdom and scholarship.
[2] Writing materials and the trumpet of
final judgment are also part of his
iconography.
Life
Saint Jerome in his Study, by Domenico Ghirlandaio
Jerome was born c. 347 at
Strido, on the border between
Pannonia and
Dalmatia, as is referenced in his ''De Viris Illustribus'' Chapter 135 (English translation below).
Jerome was an Illyrian, born to Christian parents, but was not baptized until about
360, when he had gone to
Rome with his friend
Bonosus to pursue
rhetorical and
philosophical studies. He studied under
Aelius Donatus, a skillful compiler of language techniques which Donatus called "
grammar." Jerome learned
Koine Greek, but yet had no thought of studying the Greek
Fathers, or any Christian writings.
After several years in Rome, he travelled with Bonosus to
Gaul and settled in
Trier "on the semi-barbarous banks of the
Rhine" where he seems to have first taken up theological studies, and where he copied, for his friend
Rufinus,
Hilary of Poitiers' commentary on the ''Psalms'' and the treatise ''De synodis''. Next came a stay of at least several months, or possibly years, with Rufinus at
Aquileia where he made many Christian friends.
Some of these accompanied him when he set out about
373 on a journey through
Thrace and
Asia Minor into northern
Syria. At
Antioch, where he stayed the longest, two of his companions died and he himself was seriously ill more than once. During one of these illnesses (about the winter of
373-
374), he had a vision which led him to lay aside his secular studies and devote himself to the things of God. In any case he seems to have abstained for a considerable time from the study of the classics and to have plunged deeply into that of the
Bible, under the impulse of
Apollinaris of Laodicea, then teaching in Antioch and not yet suspected of
heresy.
Seized with a desire for a life of
ascetic penance, he went for a time to the desert of
Chalcis, to the southwest of Antioch, known as the
Syrian Thebaid, from the number of hermits inhabiting it. During this period, he seems to have found time for study and writing. He made his first attempt to learn Hebrew under the guidance of a converted
Jew; and he seems to have been in correspondence with Jewish Christians in Antioch, and perhaps as early as this to have interested himself in the
Gospel of the Hebrews, said by them to be the source of the canonical
Matthew.
Returning to Antioch in
378 or
379, he was ordained by Bishop
Paulinus, apparently unwillingly and on condition that he continue his
ascetic life. Soon afterward, he went to
Constantinople to pursue a study of Scripture under
Gregory Nazianzen. He seems to have spent two years there; the next three (
382-
385) he was in Rome again, attached to
Pope Damasus I and the leading Roman Christians. Invited originally for the
synod of
382, held to end the
schism of Antioch, he made himself indispensable to the pope, and took a prominent place in his councils.
Among his other duties, he undertook a revision of the ''
Latin Bible'', to be based on the Greek
New Testament. He also updated the Psalter then at use in Rome based on the Septuagint. Though he did not realize it yet at this point, translating much of what became the Latin
Vulgate Bible would take many years, and be his most important achievement (see Writings- Translations section below).
In Rome he was surrounded by a circle of well-born and well-educated women, including some from the noblest
patrician families, such as the widows
Marcella and
Paula, with their daughters
Blaesilla and Eustochium. The resulting inclination of these women to the monastic life, and his unsparing criticism of the secular clergy, brought a growing hostility against him amongst the clergy and their supporters. Soon after the death of his patron Damasus (
December 10,
384), Jerome was forced to leave his position at Rome after an inquiry by the Roman clergy into allegations that he had improper relations with the widow Paula.
In August
385, he returned to Antioch, accompanied by his brother
Paulinianus and several friends, and followed a little later by Paula and Eustochium, who had resolved to end their days in the
Holy Land. In the winter of 385, Jerome acted as their spiritual adviser. The pilgrims, joined by Bishop Paulinus of Antioch, visited
Jerusalem,
Bethlehem, and the holy places of
Galilee, and then went to
Egypt, the home of the great heroes of the ascetic life.
At the
Catechetical School of Alexandria, Jerome listened to the blind catechist
Didymus the Blind expounding the prophet
Hosea and telling his reminiscences of
Anthony the Great, who had died thirty years before; he spent some time in
Nitria, admiring the disciplined community life of the numerous inhabitants of that "city of the Lord," but detecting even there "concealed serpents," i.e., the influence of
Origen. Late in the summer of
388 he was back in
Palestine, and spent the remainder of his life in a hermit's cell near Bethlehem, surrounded by a few friends, both men and women (including Paula and Eustochium), to whom he acted as priestly guide and teacher.
Amply provided by Paula with the means of livelihood and of increasing his collection of books, he led a life of incessant activity in literary production. To these last thirty-four years of his career belong the most important of his works -- his version of the Old Testament from the original Hebrew text, the best of his scriptural commentaries, his catalogue of Christian authors, and the dialogue against the
Pelagians, the literary perfection of which even an opponent recognized. To this period also belong most of his
polemics, which distinguished him among the orthodox Fathers, including the treatises against the Origenism of
Bishop John II of Jerusalem and his early friend Rufinus. As a result of his writings against Pelagianism, a body of excited partisans broke into the monastic buildings, set them on fire, attacked the inmates and killed a
deacon, forcing Jerome to seek safety in a neighboring fortress (
416).
Jerome died near
Bethlehem on
September 30,
420. The date of his death is given by the ''Chronicon'' of
Prosper of Aquitaine. His remains, originally buried at Bethlehem, are said to have been later transferred to the church of
Santa Maria Maggiore at Rome, though other places in the West claim some relics -- the cathedral at
Nepi boasting possession of his head, which, according to another tradition, is in the
Escorial.
Writings
Translations
Jerome was a scholar at a time when that statement implied a fluency in Greek. He knew some Hebrew when he started his translation project, but moved to
Jerusalem to perfect his grasp of the language and to strengthen his grip on Jewish scripture commentary. A wealthy Roman aristocrat, Paula, founded a monastery for him in Bethlehem - rather like a research institute - and he completed his translation there. He began in
382 by correcting the existing Latin language version of the New Testament, commonly referred to as the ''Itala'' or ''
Vetus Latina'' (the "Italian" or "
Old Latin" version). By
390 he turned to the
Hebrew Bible, having previously translated portions from the
Septuagint Greek version. He completed this work by
405. Before Jerome's translation, all Old Testament translations were based on the
Septuagint. Jerome's decision to use the
Hebrew Old Testament instead of the Septuagint went against the advice of most other Christians, including Augustine, who considered the Septuagint inspired.
For the next fifteen years, until he died, he produced a number of commentaries on Scripture, often explaining his translation choices. His knowledge of Hebrew, primarily required for this branch of his work, gives also to his
exegetical treatises (especially to those written after
386) a value greater than that of most
patristic commentaries. The commentaries align closely with Jewish tradition, and he indulges in
allegorical and
mystical subtleties after the manner of
Philo and the Alexandrian school. Unlike his contemporaries, he emphasizes the difference between the Hebrew Bible "
apocrypha" (most of which are now in the
deuterocanon) and the ''Hebraica veritas'' of the
canonical books. Evidence of this can be found in his introductions to the
Solomonic writings, to the
Book of Tobit, and to the
Book of Judith. Most notable, however, is the statement from his ''Prologus Galeatus'' (introduction to the ''
Books of the Kings''):
This preface to the Scriptures may serve as a "helmeted" introduction to all the books which we turn from Hebrew into Latin, so that we may be assured that what is not found in our list must be placed amongst the Apocryphal writings.[1]
Jerome's commentaries fall into three groups:
★ His translations or recastings of Greek predecessors, including fourteen homilies on ''
Jeremiah'' and the same number on ''
Ezekiel'' by Origen (translated ca.
380 in Constantinople); two homilies of Origen on the ''Song of Solomon'' (in Rome, ca.
383); and thirty-nine on ''
Luke'' (ca.
389, in Bethlehem). The nine homilies of Origen on ''
Isaiah'' included among his works were not done by him. Here should be mentioned, as an important contribution to the topography of Palestine, his book ''De situ et nominibus locorum Hebraeorum,'' a translation with additions and some regrettable omissions of the ''Onomasticon'' of Eusebius. To the same period (ca.
390) belongs the ''Liber interpretationis nominum Hebraicorum'', based on a work supposed to go back to Philo and expanded by Origen.
★ Original commentaries on the Old Testament. To the period before his settlement at Bethlehem and the following five years belong a series of short Old Testament studies: ''De seraphim'', ''De voce Osanna'', ''De tribus quaestionibus veteris legis'' (usually included among the letters as 18, 20, and 36); ''Quaestiones hebraicae in Genesin''; ''Commentarius in Ecclesiasten''; ''Tractatus septem in Psalmos 10-16'' (lost); ''Explanationes in Mich/leaeam'', ''Sophoniam'', ''Nahum'', ''Habacuc'', ''Aggaeum.'' About
395 he composed a series of longer commentaries, though in rather a desultory fashion: first on the remaining seven minor prophets, then on Isaiah (ca.
395-ca.
400), on ''
Daniel'' (ca.
407), on Ezekiel (between
410 and
415), and on Jeremiah (after 415, left unfinished).
★ New Testament commentaries. These include only ''
Philemon'', ''
Galatians'', ''
Ephesians'', and ''
Titus'' (hastily composed
387-
388); ''
Matthew'' (dictated in a fortnight,
398); ''
Mark'', selected passages in ''
Luke'', the prologue of ''
John'', and ''
Revelation''. Treating the last-named book in his cursory fashion, he made use of an excerpt from the commentary of the
North African
Tichonius, which is preserved as a sort of argument at the beginning of the more extended work of the Spanish presbyter
Beatus of Liébana. But before this he had already devoted to the ''Book of Revelation'' another treatment, a rather arbitrary recasting of the commentary of
Saint Victorinus (d.
303), with whose
chiliastic views he was not in accord, substituting for the chiliastic conclusion a spiritualizing exposition of his own, supplying an introduction, and making certain changes in the text.
Historical writings
★ One of Jerome's earliest attempts in the department of history was his ''Chronicle'' (or ''
Chronicon'' or ''Temporum liber''), composed ca.
380 in Constantinople; this is a translation into Latin of the chronological tables which compose the second part of the ''
Chronicon'' of
Eusebius, with a supplement covering the period from
325 to
379. Despite numerous errors taken over from Eusebius, and some of his own, Jerome produced a valuable work, if only for the impulse which it gave to such later chroniclers as
Prosper,
Cassiodorus, and
Victor of Tunnuna to continue his annals.
★ Three other works of a
hagiological nature are:
★
★ the ''
Vita Pauli monachi,'' written during his first sojourn at
Antioch (ca.
376), the legendary material of which is derived from Egyptian monastic tradition;
★
★ the ''
Vita Malchi monachi captivi'' (ca.
391), probably based on an earlier work, although it purports to be derived from the oral communications of the aged
ascetic Malchus originally made to him in the desert of Chalcis;
★
★ the ''
Vita Hilarionis,'' of the same date, containing more trustworthy historical matter than the other two, and based partly on the biography of
Epiphanius and partly on
oral tradition.
★ The so-called ''
Martyrologium Hieronymianum'' is spurious; it was apparently composed by a western monk toward the end of the
sixth or beginning of the
seventh century, with reference to an expression of Jerome's in the opening chapter of the ''Vita Malchi,'' where he speaks of intending to write a history of the saints and martyrs from the
apostolic times.
★ But the most important of Jerome's historical works is the book ''
De viris illustribus'', written at
Bethlehem in
392, the title and arrangement of which are borrowed from
Suetonius. It contains short biographical and literary notes on 135 Christian authors, from
Saint Peter down to Jerome himself. For the first seventy-eight authors Eusebius (''Historia ecclesiastica'') is the main source; in the second section, beginning with
Arnobius and
Lactantius, he includes a good deal of independent information, especially as to western writers.
Letters
Jerome's letters or
epistles, both by the great variety of their subjects and by their qualities of style, form the most interesting portion of his literary remains. Whether he is discussing problems of scholarship, or reasoning on cases of conscience, comforting the afflicted, or saying pleasant things to his friends, scourging the vices and corruptions of the time, exhorting to the ascetic life and renunciation of the world, or breaking a lance with his theological opponents, he gives a vivid picture not only of his own mind, but of the age and its peculiar characteristics.
The letters most frequently reprinted or referred to are of a hortatory nature, such as ''Ep. 14'', ''Ad Heliodorum de laude vitae solitariae''; ''Ep. 22'', ''Ad Eustochium de custodia virginitatis''; ''Ep. 52'', ''Ad Nepotianum de vita clericorum et monachorum,'' a sort of epitome of
pastoral theology from the ascetic standpoint; ''Ep. 53'', ''Ad Paulinum de studio scripturarum''; ''Ep. 57'', to the same, ''De institutione monachi''; ''Ep. 70'', ''Ad Magnum de scriptoribus ecclesiasticis''; and ''Ep. 107'', ''Ad Laetam de institutione filiae.''
Theological writings
Practically all of Jerome's productions in the field of
dogma have a more or less violently
polemical character, and are directed against assailants of the orthodox doctrines. Even the translation of the treatise of
Didymus the Blind on the
Holy Spirit into Latin (begun in Rome
384, completed at Bethlehem) shows an
apologetic tendency against the
Arians and
Pneumatomachoi. The same is true of his version of Origen's ''De principiis'' (ca.
399), intended to supersede the inaccurate translation by Rufinus. The more strictly polemical writings cover every period of his life. During the sojourns at Antioch and Constantinople he was mainly occupied with the Arian controversy, and especially with the schisms centering around
Meletius of Antioch and
Lucifer Calaritanus. Two letters to Pope Damasus (15 and 16) complain of the conduct of both parties at Antioch, the Meletians and Paulinians, who had tried to draw him into their controversy over the application of the terms ''ousia'' and ''hypostasis'' to the
Trinity. At the same time or a little later (
379) he composed his ''Liber Contra Luciferianos'', in which he cleverly uses the dialogue form to combat the tenets of that faction, particularly their rejection of
baptism by heretics.
In Rome (ca.
383) he wrote a passionate counterblast against the teaching of
Helvidius, in defense of the doctrine of
The perpetual virginity of Mary, the
Mary, and of the superiority of the single over the married state. An opponent of a somewhat similar nature was
Jovinianus, with whom he came into conflict in
392 (''Adversus Jovinianum,'' (
Against Jovinianus) and the defense of this work addressed to his friend
Pammachius, numbered 48 in the letters). Once more he defended the ordinary Catholic practices of
piety and his own
ascetic ethics in
406 against the Spanish
presbyter Vigilantius, who opposed the ''
cultus'' of martyrs and relics, the vow of poverty, and clerical celibacy. Meanwhile the controversy with John II of Jerusalem and Rufinus concerning the orthodoxy of Origen occurred. To this period belong some of his most passionate and most comprehensive polemical works: the ''Contra Joannem Hierosolymitanum'' (
398 or
399); the two closely-connected ''Apologiae contra Rufinum'' (
402); and the "last word" written a few months later, the ''Liber tertius seu ultima responsio adversus scripta Rufini.'' The last of his polemical works is the skilfully-composed ''Dialogus contra Pelagianos'' (
415).
Jerome's reception in later Christianity
Jerome is the second most voluminous writer (after St. Augustine) in ancient Latin Christianity. In the
Roman Catholic Church, he is recognized as the
patron saint of
translators,
librarians and
encyclopedists.
He acquired a knowledge of Hebrew by studying with a Jew who converted to Christianity, and took the unusual position (for that time) that the Hebrew, and not the Septuagint, was the inspired text of the Old Testament. He used this knowledge to translate what became known as the Vulgate, and his translation was slowly but eventually accepted in the Catholic church.
[3] Obviously, the later resurgence of Hebrew studies within Christianity owes much to him.
Jerome sometimes seemed arrogant, and occasionally despised or belittled his literary rivals, especially
Ambrose. It is not so much by absolute knowledge that he shines, as by an certain poetical elegance, an incisive wit, a singular skill in adapting recognized or proverbial phrases to his purpose, and a successful aiming at rhetorical effect.
He showed more zeal and interest in the ascetic ideal than in abstract speculation. It was this strict asceticism that made
Martin Luther judge him so severely. In fact,
Protestant readers are not generally inclined to accept his writings as authoritative. The tendency to recognize a superior comes out in his correspondence with
Augustine (cf. Jerome's letters numbered 56, 67, 102-105, 110-112, 115-116; and 28, 39, 40, 67-68, 71-75, 81-82 in Augustine's).
Despite of the criticisms already mentioned, Jerome has retained a rank among the western Fathers. This would be his due, if for nothing else, on account of the great influence exercised by his Latin version of the Bible upon the subsequent
ecclesiastical and
theological development.
Quotes
:''I praise marriage, but it is because they give me virgins.'' (Jerome's Letter XXII to Eustochium, section 20
on-line)
:''Be ever engaged, so that whenever the devil calls he may find you occupied.''
:''Ignorance of the Scriptures is ignorance of Christ.'' (Jerome's Prologue to the “Commentary on Isaiah”: PL 24,17)
See also
★
Church Fathers
★
Bible translations
★
Genesius of Arles
Notes
1. The lion episode, in ''Vita Divi Hieronymi'' (Migne ''Pat. Lat.'' XXII, c. 209ff.) was translated by Helen Waddell ''Beasts and Saints'' (NY: Henry Holt) 1934) (on-line retelling).
2. The Collection: St. Jerome, gallery of the religious art collection of New Mexico State University, with explanations. Accessed August 10, 2007.
3. Stefan Rebenich, Jerome (New York: Routlage, 2002), pp. 52-59
External links
★
"St. Jerome" by Louis Saltet, in ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'' (1910)
★
English translation of Jerome's De Viris Illustribus
★
Jewish Encyclopedia: Jerome
★
St. Jerome - Catholic Online
★
Chronological list of Jerome's Works - Fourth-Century Christianity
★
The Story of St. Jerome and the Lion
★
The Perpetual Virginity of Blessed Mary by St. Jerome
★
St Jerome (Hieronymus) of Stridonium Orthodox
synaxarion
References
Footnotes
1. The lion episode, in ''Vita Divi Hieronymi'' (Migne ''Pat. Lat.'' XXII, c. 209ff.) was translated by Helen Waddell ''Beasts and Saints'' (NY: Henry Holt) 1934) (on-line retelling).
2. The Collection: St. Jerome, gallery of the religious art collection of New Mexico State University, with explanations. Accessed August 10, 2007.
3. Stefan Rebenich, Jerome (New York: Routlage, 2002), pp. 52-59
General references
★ ''Biblia Sacra Vulgata'' Stuttgart, 1994. ISBN 3-438-05303-9
★ ''This article uses material from Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion.''
★ birth/death dates from
The Later Roman Empire, , A, Cameron, Fontana Press, 1993,
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