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EspañolKANO JIGORO
(Redirected from Jigoro Kano)
'Kano Jigoro' (嘉納 治五郎 ''Kanō Jigorō'', 28 October, 1860–4 May, 1938) was the founder of judo. Judo was the first Japanese martial art to gain widespread international recognition, and the first to become an official Olympic sport.[1] Pedagogical innovations attributed to Kano include the use of black and white belts to show relative ranking between members of a martial art style. Well-known mottoes attributed to Kano include "Maximum Efficiency with Minimum Effort" and "Mutual Welfare and Benefit."
In his professional life, Kano was an educator. Important postings included service as director of primary education for the Ministry of Education (文部省, Monbushō) from 1898-1901, and as president of Tokyo Higher Normal School from 1901 until 1920.[2] As such, he played a key role in getting judo and kendo made part of the Japanese public school programs of the 1910s.
Kano was also a pioneer of international sports. Accomplishments included being the first Asian member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) (he served from 1909 until 1938), officially representing Japan at most Olympic Games held between 1912 and 1936, and serving as a leading spokesman for Japan's bid for the 1940 Olympic Games.
His official honors and decorations included the First Order of Merit and Grand Order of the Rising Sun and the Third Imperial Degree.
Kano Jigoro was born to a sake brewing family in the town of Mikage, Japan (now within Higashinada-ku, Kobe). The family sake brands
included "Shiroshika", "Hakutsuru", and "Kiku-Masamune". However, Kano's father, Kano Jirosaku Kireshiba, was an adopted son who did not go into the family business. Instead, he worked as a lay priest and as a senior clerk for a shipping line.[3] Kano's father was a great believer in the power of education, and he provided Jigoro, his third son, with an excellent education. The boy's early teachers included the neo-Confucian scholars Yamamoto Chikuun and Akita Shusetsu.[4] Kano's mother died when the boy was 9 years old, and his father moved the family to Tokyo. The young Kano was enrolled in private schools, and had his own English language tutor. In 1874, he was sent to a private school run by Europeans, to improve his English and German skills.
At the time, Kano stood 5 feet 2 inches but weighed only 90 pounds. He wished he were stronger.[5] One day, a friend of the family, Nakai Baisei, who was a member of the shogun's guard, mentioned in passing that jujutsu was an excellent form of physical training. He then showed Kano a few techniques by which a smaller man might overcome a larger, stronger opponent. Kano decided he wanted to learn the art, despite Nakai's insistence that such training was an out of date and somewhat dangerous pastime. Kano's father also discouraged him from jujutsu, telling him to pursue a modern sport instead.[6]
Undeterred, when Kano started attending Tokyo Imperial University in 1881, he started looking for jujutsu teachers. He did this by first looking for bonesetters, called ''seifukushi'', on the assumption that doctors knew who the better martial art teachers were. This brought him to Yagi Teinosuke, who had been a student of Emon Isomata in the Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū school of jujutsu. Yagi in turn referred Kano to Fukuda Hachinosuke, a bonesetter who taught Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū in a 10-mat room adjacent to his practice. Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū was itself a combination of two older schools, the Yōshin-ryū and Shin no Shindō-ryū.[7][8]
Fukuda's training method consisted mostly of the student taking fall after fall for the teacher or senior student until he began to understand the mechanics of the technique. Fukuda stressed applied technique over ritual form. He gave beginners a short description of the technique and then had them engage in free practice ''(randori)'' in order to teach through experience. It was only after the student had attained some proficiency that he taught them traditional forms (''kata''). This method was difficult, as there were no special mats for falling, only the standard straw mats (''tatami'') laid over wooden floors.
Kano had trouble defeating Fukushima Kanekichi, who was one of his seniors at the school. Therefore, Kano started trying unfamiliar techniques on his rival. He first tried techniques from sumo. When these did not help, he studied more, and tried a technique ("fireman's carry") that he learned from a book on western wrestling. This worked, and ''kataguruma'', or "shoulder wheel", remains part of the judo repertoire.[9]
On 5 August 1879, Kano participated in a jujutsu demonstration given for former United States president Ulysses S. Grant. This demonstration took place at the home of the prominent businessman Shibusawa Eiichi. Other people involved in this demonstration included the jujutsu teachers Fukuda Hachinosuke and Iso Masatomo, and Kano's training partner Godai Ryusaku.April 18, 1922"> Japan Times [10] Unfortunately, Fukuda died soon after this demonstration, at the age of 52. Kano then began studying with Iso, who had been a friend of Fukuda. Despite being 62 years old and only standing 5 feet tall, Iso's jujutsu training had given him a powerful build. He was known for excellence in ''kata'', and was also a specialist in ''atemi'', or the striking of vital areas. In Iso's method, one began with ''kata'' and then progressed to free fighting (''randori''). Due to Kano's intense practice and his solid grounding in the jujutsu taught by Fukuda, he was soon an assistant at Iso's school, and in 1881, at the age of 21, he gained a license (''kyoshi menkyo'') to teach Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū.
While under Iso's tutelage, Kano witnessed a demonstration by the Yōshin-ryū jujutsu teacher Totsuka Hikosuke and later took part in ''randori'' with members of Totsuka's school.[11] Kano was impressed by the Yōshin-ryū practitioners and realized that he might never be able to beat someone as talented as Totsuka simply by training harder: he also needed to train smarter. It was this experience that first led Kano to believe that to be truly superior, one needed to combine the best elements of several ''ryū'', or schools, of jujutsu. Toward this end, he began to seek teachers who could provide him with superior elements of jujutsu that he could adopt.
After Iso died in 1881, Kano began training in Kitō-ryū with Iikubo Tsunetoshi. Ikubo was expert in ''kata'' and throwing, and fond of ''randori''. Kano applied himself thoroughly to learning Kito-ryū, believing Iikubo's throwing techniques in particular to be better than in the schools he had previously studied.
During the early 1880s, there was no clear separation between the jujutsu that Kano was teaching and the jujutsu that his teachers had taught in the past. Indeed, Kano's Kitō-ryū teacher, Iikubo Tsunetoshi, came to Kano's classes two or three times a week to support Kano's teaching. However, there eventually came the day when student and master began to exchange places, and Kano began to defeat Iikubo during ''randori'':[12]
To name his system, Kano revived a term that Terada Kan'emon, the fifth headmaster of the Kitō-ryū, had adopted when he founded his own style, the Jikishin-ryū: "''jūdō''". The name combined the characters ''jū'' (柔), meaning "pliancy", and ''dō'', which is literally "The Way", but figuratively meaning method.[13][14]
From a technical standpoint, Kano combined the throwing techniques of the Kitō-ryū and the choking and pinning techniques of the Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū. As such, judo's ''Koshiki no Kata'' preserves the traditional forms of the Kitō-ryū with only minor differences from the mainline tradition. Similarly, many of the techniques (but not the forms) of the Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū are preserved in the ''Kime no Kata''.
Initially, Kano borrowed ideas from everywhere. As he wrote in 1898, "By taking together all the good points I had learned of the various schools and adding thereto my own inventions and discoveries, I devised a new system for physical culture and moral training as well as for winning contests."[15] However, after judo was introduced into the Japanese public schools, a process that took place between 1906 and 1917, there was increasing standardization of ''kata'' and tournament technique.
Kano also oversaw the development and growth of his judo organization, the Kodokan. This was a remarkable effort in itself, as the Kodokan's enrollment grew from fewer than a dozen students in 1882 to more than a thousand ''dan''-graded members by 1911.[16]
In May or June 1882, Kano started the Kodokan dojo in space belonging to the Eishoji Temple.[17] Kano had only a handful of students at this time, but they improved their technique through regular contests with local police jujutsu teams.[18][19][20]
The Kodokan moved to a 60-mat space in April 1890.[21] In December 1893, the Kodokan started moving to a larger space located in Tomizaka-cho, Koishikawa-cho, and this move was complete by February 1894.[17]
The Kodokan's first ''gankeiko'', or winter training, took place at the Tomizaka-cho dojo during the winter of 1894-1895. Midsummer training, or ''shochugeiko'', started in 1896. "In order to inure the pupil to the two extremes of heat and cold and to cultivate the virtue of perseverance", Britain's E.J. Harrison wrote:[23]
During the late 1890s, the Kodokan moved two more times, first to a 207-mat space in November 1897, and then to a 314-mat space in January 1898.[21] In 1909, Kano incorporated the Kodokan, and endowed it with ¥10,000 (then about U.S. $4,700). The reason, said ''Japan Times'' on 30 March, 1913, was "so that this wonderful institution might be able to reconstruct, for that is what it really does, the moral and physical nature of the Japanese youth, without its founder's personal attention."
The Kodokan moved one more time during Kano's lifetime, and on 21 March, 1934, the Kodokan dedicated this 510-mat facility. Guests at the opening included the Belgian, Italian, and Afghan ambassadors to Japan.[25] In 1958, when the Kodokan moved to its current 8-story, 986-mat, facility, this building was sold to the Japan Karate Association.
On 18 April, 1888, Kano and Reverend Thomas Lindsay presented a lecture called "Jiujitsu: The Old Samurai Art of Fighting without Weapons" to the Asiatic Society of Japan. This lecture took place at the British Embassy in Tokyo. Its theme was that the main principle of judo involved gaining victory by yielding to strength.[26]
Being an idealist, Kano had broad aims for judo, which he saw as something that simultaneously encompassed self-defense, physical culture, and moral behavior.[27]
In 1915, Kano gave this definition to judo:[28]
In 1918, Kano added:[29]
During March 1922, Kano brought all this to fruition through the introduction of the Kodokan Bunkakai, or Kodokan Cultural Association. This organization held its first meeting at Tokyo's Seiyoken Hotel on 5 April 1922, and held its first public lecture three days later at the YMCA hall in Kanda. The mottoes of the Kodokan Cultural Association were "Good Use of Spiritual and Physical Strength" and "Prospering in Common for Oneself and Others." Although those are literal translations, the phrases were usually translated into English as "Maximum Efficiency with Minimum Effort" and "Mutual Welfare and Benefit." The theories of this organization were described in some detail in an article published in ''Living Age'' in September 1922.[30]
Although Kano promoted judo whenever he could, he earned his living as an educator.
Kano entered Tokyo Imperial University during June 1881. He majored in political science and economics, which at that time were taught by the Department of Aesthetics and Morals. He graduated in July 1882, and the following month he began work as a professor, fourth class, at the Gakushuin, or Peers School, in Tokyo.[31] In 1883, Kano was appointed professor of economics at Komaba Agricultural College (now the Faculty of Agriculture at University of Tokyo), but during April 1885, he returned to Gakushuin, with the position of principal.
In January 1891, Kano was appointed to a position at the Ministry of Education. In August 1891, he gave up this position to become a dean at the Fifth Higher Normal School (present-day Kumamoto University). One of the teachers at Fifth Higher between 1891 and 1893 was Lafcadio Hearn. Around this same time, Kano married. His wife, Sumako Takezoe, was the daughter of a former Japanese ambassador to Korea. Eventually, the couple had six daughters and three sons.[32][33]
During the summer of 1892, Kano went to Shanghai to help establish a program that would allow Chinese students to study in Japan. Kano revisited Shanghai during 1905, 1915, and 1921.
In January 1898, Kano was appointed director of primary education at the Ministry of Education, and in August 1899, he received a grant that allowed him to study in Europe. His ship left Yokohama on 13 September, 1899, and he arrived in Marseilles on 15 October. He spent about a year in Europe, and during this trip, he visited Paris, Berlin, Brussels, Amsterdam, and London. He returned to Japan in 1901.[34] Soon after returning to Japan, he resumed his post as president of Tokyo Higher Normal School, and he remained in this position until his retirement on 16 January, 1920.[35]
Considering that he majored in political science and economics, Kano's family thought that after graduating from university, he would pursue a career in some government ministry. Indeed, through influential friends of his father's, he was initially offered a position with the Ministry of Finance. However, his love for teaching led him instead to accept a position teaching at Gakushuin. The students of Japan's elite attended Gakushuin and were of higher social positions than their teachers. The students were allowed to ride in rickshaws (''jinrikisha'') right to the doors of the classes, whereas teachers were forbidden. The teachers often felt compelled to visit the homes of these students whenever summoned to give instruction or advice. In effect, the teachers were treated as servants.
Kano believed this to be unacceptable. He refused to play such a subservient role when teaching his students. To Kano, a teacher must command respect. At the same time, he employed the latest European and American pedagogical methods. The theories of the American educator John Dewey especially influenced him.[36] Kano's manner had the desired effect upon the students, but the administration was slower to warm to his methods and it was not until the arrival of a new principal that Kano's ideas found acceptance.
All this is to say that Kano's educational philosophy was a combination of both traditional Japanese neo-Confucianism and contemporary European and American philosophies, to include Instrumentalism, Utilitarianism, and "evolutionary progressivism", as Social Darwinism was then known.
The goals of Kano's educational philosophies and methods (indeed, the goals of most Japanese educational programs of the early 20th century) were to 1) develop minds, bodies, and spirits in equal proportion, 2) increase patriotism and loyalty, especially to the Emperor, 3) teach public morality, and 4) increase physical strength and stamina, especially for the purpose of making young men more fit for military service.[37]
Calisthenics, especially as done in the huge formations favored at the time, could be boring, and at the high school and college levels, games such as baseball and rugby were more often spectator sports than a practical source of physical exercise for the masses. Moreover, at elite levels, baseball, football, and even judo did not put much emphasis on moral or intellectual development. Instead, elite coaches and athletes tended to emphasize winning, at almost any cost.[38]
For Kano, the answer to this connundrum was one word: judo. Not judo in the sense of simply throwing other people around, and definitely not judo in the sense of winning at any cost. Instead, it was judo in the sense of "Maximum Efficiency with Minimum Effort" and "Mutual Welfare and Benefit." Or, as Kano himself put it to a reporter in 1938: "When yielding is the highest efficient use of energy, then yielding is judo."[39]
Kano became active in the activities of the International Olympics Committee (IOC) in 1909. This came about after Kristian Hellstrøm of the Swedish Olympic Committee wrote to the governments of Japan and China to ask if they were going to send teams to the 1912 Olympics.[40] The Japanese government did not want to embarrass itself on an international stage by saying no, so the Ministry of Education was told to look into this. The Ministry logically turned to Kano, who was a physical educator with recent experience in Europe. Kano agreed to represent Japan at the International Olympics Committee, and, after talking to the French ambassador to Japan and reading pamphlets sent by the Swedes, he got, in his words, "a fairly good idea of what the Olympic Games were."[41]
Toward fulfilling his duties as a member, in 1912, Kano helped establish the Japan Amateur Athletic Association (Dai Nippon Tai-iku Kyokai), which had the mission of overseeing amateur sport in Japan. Kano was the official representative of Japan to the Olympics in Stockholm in 1912, and he was involved in organizing the Far Eastern Championship Games held in Osaka during May 1917. In 1920, Kano represented Japan at the Antwerp Olympics, and during the early 1920s, he served on the Japanese Council of Physical Education. He did not play much part in organizing the Far Eastern Championship Games held in Osaka in May 1923, nor did he attend the 1924 Olympics in Paris, but he did represent Japan at the Olympics in Amsterdam (1928), Los Angeles (1932), and Berlin (1936). From 1931 to 1938, he was also one of the leading international spokesmen in Japan's bid for the 1940 Olympics.[42][43]
Kano's chief goal in all this was, in his words, to gather people together for a common cause, with friendly feeling.[44] His goals did not, however, particularly involve getting judo into the Olympics. As he put it in a letter to Britain's Gunji Koizumi in 1936:[45]
In 1934, Kano quit giving public exhibitions. The reason was failing health, probably compounded by kidney stones. "People don’t seem to think he will live much longer", the British judoka Sarah Mayer wrote friends in London.[46] Nevertheless, Kano continued attending important Kodokan events such as ''kagami-biraki'' (New Years' ceremonies) whenever he could, and he continued participating in Olympics business.
In May 1938, Kano died at sea, while on board the NYK Line motor vessel MV ''Hikawa Maru''.[47] Because the Japanese merchant fleet of the 1930s used Tokyo time wherever it was in the world, the Japanese date of death was 4 May 1938 at about 5:33 a.m. JST, whereas the international date of death was 3 May 1938 at 8:33 p.m. UTC.[48] The cause of death was officially listed as pneumonia.[49] During the 1990s, there appeared allegations that Kano was murdered by poisoning rather than dying of pneumonia.[50] Although this conspiracy theory proved popular on the Internet, there is no known contemporary documentation to support it.
Judo did not die with Kano. Instead, during the 1950s, judo clubs sprang up throughout the world, and in 1972, judo became an official Olympic sport. Kano's posthumous reputation was therefore assured. Nonetheless, his true legacy was his idealism. As Kano said in a speech given in 1934, "Nothing under the sun is greater than education. By educating one person and sending him into the society of his generation, we make a contribution extending a hundred generations to come."
★ Kano, Jigoro. (October 1898 - December 1903). ''Kokushi''.
★ Lindsay, Thomas and Kano, Jigoro. (1889, 1915 reprint). "The Old Samurai Art of Fighting without Weapons", ''Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan'', XVI, Pt II, pp. 202-217.[14]
★ Kano, Jigoro. (Jan. 1915 - December 1918). ''Jūdō.''
★ Kano, Jigoro. (1922). "Jiudo [''sic'']: The Japanese Art of Self Defence", ''Living Age'', 314, pp. 724-731.[15]
★ Kano, Jigoro. (1932). "The Contribution of Jiudo [''sic''] to Education", Journal of Health and Physical Education, 3, pp. 37-40, 58 (originally a lecture given at the University of Southern California on the occasion of the Xth Olympiad).[16]
★ Kano, Jigoro. (1934). "Principles of Judo and Their Applications to All Phases of Human Activity", unpublished lecture given at the Parnassus Society, Athens, Greece, on 5 June, 1934, reprinted as "Principles of Judo" in ''Budokwai Quarterly Bulletin'', April 1948, pp. 37-42.[17]
★ Kano, Jigoro. (1936). "Olympic Games and Japan", ''Dai Nippon'', pp. 197-199. In Thomas A. Green and Joseph R. Svinth, eds., ''Martial Arts in the Modern World''. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood, 2003, pp. 167-172.
★ Kano, Jigoro. (1937). ''Judo (jujutsu) by Prof. Jigorō Kanō.'' Tokyo: Board of Tourist Industry, Japanese Government Railways.
★ Kano, Jigoro. (1937). "Jujutsu and Judo; What Are They?" Tokyo: Kodokwan.
★ Kano, Jigoro. (Undated.) ''Jujutsu Becomes Judo.''[18]
★ Kano, Jigoro. (1972). ''Kanō Jigorō, watakushi no shōgai to jūdō.'' Tokyo: Shin Jinbutsu Oraisha.
★ Kano, Jigoro. (1981). ''Kanō Jigorō no kyōiku to shisō.'' Publication data unknown.
★ Kano, Jigoro. (1983). ''Kanō Jigorō chosakushū.'' Tokyo: Gogatsu Shobo.
★ Kano, Jigoro. (1986). ''Kodokan judo/Jigoro Kano; edited under the supervision of the Kodokan Editorial Committee''. Tokyo and New York: Kodansha International.
★ Kano, Jigoro. (1995). ''Kanō Jigorō taikei/kanshū Kōdōkan.'' Tokyo: Hon no Tomosha.
★ Hard and soft (martial arts)
★ Judo technique
★ Kosen judo
★ Kuzushi
★ Sanshiro Sugata
★ The Principle of Ju
1. Judo was not, however, the first Asian martial art to be demonstrated at the Olympics. Instead, that honor appears to belong to the Chinese martial arts demonstrated at the 1936 Olympics. For more on this, see Andrew Morris, ''Marrow of the Nation: A History of Sport and Physical Culture in Republican China'' (Berkeley: University of California, 2004), pp. 223-227.
2. Strictly speaking, the name was Tokyo Normal School from 1901 until 1903, and Tokyo Higher Normal School from 1903 to 1924. Tokyo Higher Normal School is today viewed as an ancestor of the Institute of Health and Sport Sciences at University of Tsukuba For more on this, see the Institute of Health and Sport Science's web site. [1]
3. Histoire du Judo, , Tsuneo, Tomita, Revue Judo Kodokan,
4.
5. The Kodokan Judo, , Risei, Kano, Kodokan, ,
6. The Father of Judo: A Biography of Jigoro Kano, , Brian, Watson, Kodansha International, ,
7.
8. Twentieth Century Warriors, Prominent Men in the Oriental Fighting Arts, , Andy, Adams, Ohara, ,
9. Jigoro Kano's Thoughts on Judo, with Special Reference to the Approach of Judo Thought during His Jujutsu Training Years, , Mineo, Maekawa, Bulletin of the Association for the Scientific Studies on Judo,
10.
11.
12. Watanabe, Jiichi and Avakian, Lindy. ''The Secrets of Judo''. Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle Co., 1960. Retrieved February 14, 2007 from [2] (click on "Thoughts on Training").
13. Waterhouse, David. "Kanō Jigorō and the Beginnings of the Jūdō Movement", Toronto, symposium, 1982, pp. 170-171.
14. Draeger, Donn F. ''Martial Arts and Ways of Japan: Volume II; Classical Budo and Bujutsu''. Weatherhill, Tokyo, 1973.
15. Kano, Risei. ''The Kodokan Judo''. Tokyo: Kodokan, 1951.
16. According to data presented by Yokoyama Sakujiro, in 1911, the Kodokan had two members ranked 7-dan, three members ranked 6-dan, six members ranked 5-dan, 30 members ranked 4-dan, 120 members ranked 3-dan, 300 members ranked 2-dan, and 750 ranked 1-dan. Source: Paul Nurse, "The Beginnings of Kodokan Judō: 1882-1938", unpublished manuscript, 1983.
17. ''Japan Times'', March 30, 1913; see also Kodokan.
18. Abel, Laszlo. "The Meiji Period Police Bujutsu Competitions: Judo versus Jujutsu", ''JMAS Newsletter'', December 1984, v. 2:3, pp. 10-14.[3].
19. Muromoto, Wayne. "Judo's Decisive Battle: The Great Tournament Between Kodokan Judo's Four Heavenly Lords and the Jujutsu Masters", ''Furyu: The Budo Journal'', v. 3.[4]
20. Holmes, Ben. "Shiro Saigo: Judo's Secret Weapon?" [5]
21. For dates, see Kodokan.
22. ''Japan Times'', March 30, 1913; see also Kodokan.
23. Harrison, E.J. ''The Fighting Spirit of Japan.'' Woodstock, New York: Overlook Press, 1982, p. 50.
24. For dates, see Kodokan.
25. ''Japan Times'', March 23, 1934.
26. Lindsay, Thomas and Kano, Jigoro. "The Old Samurai Art of Fighting without Weapons", ''Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan'', XVI, Pt II, 1889, 1915 reprint, pp. 202-217,[6]
27. Kano, Jigoro. "The Life of Jigoro Kano". Reprinted in ''AikiNews'', 85, 1990.[7]
28. Murata, Naoki. "From 'Jutsu to Dō: The Birth of Kōdōkan Judo." In Alexander Bennett, ed., ''Budo Perspectives.'' Auckland: Kendo World, 2005, p. 147-148.
29. Murata, Naoki. "From 'Jutsu to Dō: The Birth of Kōdōkan Judo." In Alexander Bennett, ed., ''Budo Perspectives.'' Auckland: Kendo World, 2005, p. 150.
30. Kano, Jigoro. "The Contribution of Jiudo [''sic''] to Education", ''Journal of Health and Physical Education'', 3, 1932, pp. 37-40, 58.[8]
31. Life and Death of Professor Kano, , , Anonymous (Henri Plée, ed.), Judo International,
32. Ishikawa, Yasujiro. ''Who's Who in Japan,'' fifth edition. Tokyo: Keiseisha, 1916, p. 256.
33. ''Japan Times,'' July 7, 1914.
34.
35. ''Japan Times'', January 12, 1920; ''Japan Times'', January 15, 1920; ''Japan Times'', January 17, 1920.
36. Dewey visited the Kodokan on 31 March, 1919. For Dewey's thoughts on Kano's methods, see John Dewey and Alice Chipman Dewey, ''Letters from China and Japan'', edited by Evelyn Dewey (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1920), pp. 93-94.
37. Amano, Ikuo, ''Education and Examination in Modern Japan'', translated by William K. Cummings and Fumiko Cummings (Tokyo: University of Tokyo, 1990), pp. 71-81 and Harries, Meirion and Susie Harries, ''Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army'' (New York: Random House, 1991), pp. 170-175.
38. ''Japan Times'', August 17, 1936, p. 3.
39. ''Japan Times'', May 17, 1938, p. 5.
40. Guttman, Allen. ''The Olympics: A History of the Modern Games'' (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), p. 31.
41. Kano, Jigoro. "Olympic Games and Japan," ''Dai Nippon'', 1936, p. 197.
42. Svinth, Joseph R. "Fulfilling His Duty as a Member: Jigoro Kano and the Japanese Bid for the 1940 Olympics."[9]
43. Svinth, Joseph R. "Jigoro Kano in North America", ''The Kano Society.''[10]
44. Kano, Jigoro. "Olympic Games and Japan," ''Dai Nippon'', 1936, p. 199.
45. Brousse, Michel and Matsumoto, David. ''Judo in the U.S.: A Century of Dedication''. Berkeley, California: North Atlantic Books, 2005, p. 110.
46. Letters from Sarah Mayer to Gunji Koizumi, annotated by Joseph R. Svinth.[11][12]
47. MV HIKAWA MARU (1930)
48. ''Japan Times'', May 7, 1938.
49. Hirasawa, K. "The Death of Professor Jigoro Kano, Shi-Han", ''Judo International'', edited by Henri Plée. Paris, 1950, pp. 3-4.[13]
50. Brown, Carl. ''Law and the Martial Arts''. Black Belt Communications, 1998.
★ Koshiki no kata Kano Jigoro with Yamashita Yoshiaki
★ Kano Jigoro demonstrates throw
★ Kano Jigoro archive footage
'Kano Jigoro' (嘉納 治五郎 ''Kanō Jigorō'', 28 October, 1860–4 May, 1938) was the founder of judo. Judo was the first Japanese martial art to gain widespread international recognition, and the first to become an official Olympic sport.[1] Pedagogical innovations attributed to Kano include the use of black and white belts to show relative ranking between members of a martial art style. Well-known mottoes attributed to Kano include "Maximum Efficiency with Minimum Effort" and "Mutual Welfare and Benefit."
In his professional life, Kano was an educator. Important postings included service as director of primary education for the Ministry of Education (文部省, Monbushō) from 1898-1901, and as president of Tokyo Higher Normal School from 1901 until 1920.[2] As such, he played a key role in getting judo and kendo made part of the Japanese public school programs of the 1910s.
Kano was also a pioneer of international sports. Accomplishments included being the first Asian member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) (he served from 1909 until 1938), officially representing Japan at most Olympic Games held between 1912 and 1936, and serving as a leading spokesman for Japan's bid for the 1940 Olympic Games.
His official honors and decorations included the First Order of Merit and Grand Order of the Rising Sun and the Third Imperial Degree.
| Contents |
| Early years |
| Jujutsu |
| Kodokan judo |
| Establishment |
| Development |
| Ideals |
| Professional life |
| Educator |
| International Olympics Committee |
| Legacy |
| Published works |
| See also |
| References |
| External links |
Early years
Kano Jigoro was born to a sake brewing family in the town of Mikage, Japan (now within Higashinada-ku, Kobe). The family sake brands
included "Shiroshika", "Hakutsuru", and "Kiku-Masamune". However, Kano's father, Kano Jirosaku Kireshiba, was an adopted son who did not go into the family business. Instead, he worked as a lay priest and as a senior clerk for a shipping line.[3] Kano's father was a great believer in the power of education, and he provided Jigoro, his third son, with an excellent education. The boy's early teachers included the neo-Confucian scholars Yamamoto Chikuun and Akita Shusetsu.[4] Kano's mother died when the boy was 9 years old, and his father moved the family to Tokyo. The young Kano was enrolled in private schools, and had his own English language tutor. In 1874, he was sent to a private school run by Europeans, to improve his English and German skills.
At the time, Kano stood 5 feet 2 inches but weighed only 90 pounds. He wished he were stronger.[5] One day, a friend of the family, Nakai Baisei, who was a member of the shogun's guard, mentioned in passing that jujutsu was an excellent form of physical training. He then showed Kano a few techniques by which a smaller man might overcome a larger, stronger opponent. Kano decided he wanted to learn the art, despite Nakai's insistence that such training was an out of date and somewhat dangerous pastime. Kano's father also discouraged him from jujutsu, telling him to pursue a modern sport instead.[6]
Jujutsu
Kano demonstrated jujutsu for Ulysses S. Grant when the former U.S. president visited Japan in 1879.
Undeterred, when Kano started attending Tokyo Imperial University in 1881, he started looking for jujutsu teachers. He did this by first looking for bonesetters, called ''seifukushi'', on the assumption that doctors knew who the better martial art teachers were. This brought him to Yagi Teinosuke, who had been a student of Emon Isomata in the Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū school of jujutsu. Yagi in turn referred Kano to Fukuda Hachinosuke, a bonesetter who taught Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū in a 10-mat room adjacent to his practice. Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū was itself a combination of two older schools, the Yōshin-ryū and Shin no Shindō-ryū.[7][8]
Fukuda's training method consisted mostly of the student taking fall after fall for the teacher or senior student until he began to understand the mechanics of the technique. Fukuda stressed applied technique over ritual form. He gave beginners a short description of the technique and then had them engage in free practice ''(randori)'' in order to teach through experience. It was only after the student had attained some proficiency that he taught them traditional forms (''kata''). This method was difficult, as there were no special mats for falling, only the standard straw mats (''tatami'') laid over wooden floors.
Kano had trouble defeating Fukushima Kanekichi, who was one of his seniors at the school. Therefore, Kano started trying unfamiliar techniques on his rival. He first tried techniques from sumo. When these did not help, he studied more, and tried a technique ("fireman's carry") that he learned from a book on western wrestling. This worked, and ''kataguruma'', or "shoulder wheel", remains part of the judo repertoire.[9]
On 5 August 1879, Kano participated in a jujutsu demonstration given for former United States president Ulysses S. Grant. This demonstration took place at the home of the prominent businessman Shibusawa Eiichi. Other people involved in this demonstration included the jujutsu teachers Fukuda Hachinosuke and Iso Masatomo, and Kano's training partner Godai Ryusaku.April 18, 1922"> Japan Times [10] Unfortunately, Fukuda died soon after this demonstration, at the age of 52. Kano then began studying with Iso, who had been a friend of Fukuda. Despite being 62 years old and only standing 5 feet tall, Iso's jujutsu training had given him a powerful build. He was known for excellence in ''kata'', and was also a specialist in ''atemi'', or the striking of vital areas. In Iso's method, one began with ''kata'' and then progressed to free fighting (''randori''). Due to Kano's intense practice and his solid grounding in the jujutsu taught by Fukuda, he was soon an assistant at Iso's school, and in 1881, at the age of 21, he gained a license (''kyoshi menkyo'') to teach Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū.
While under Iso's tutelage, Kano witnessed a demonstration by the Yōshin-ryū jujutsu teacher Totsuka Hikosuke and later took part in ''randori'' with members of Totsuka's school.[11] Kano was impressed by the Yōshin-ryū practitioners and realized that he might never be able to beat someone as talented as Totsuka simply by training harder: he also needed to train smarter. It was this experience that first led Kano to believe that to be truly superior, one needed to combine the best elements of several ''ryū'', or schools, of jujutsu. Toward this end, he began to seek teachers who could provide him with superior elements of jujutsu that he could adopt.
After Iso died in 1881, Kano began training in Kitō-ryū with Iikubo Tsunetoshi. Ikubo was expert in ''kata'' and throwing, and fond of ''randori''. Kano applied himself thoroughly to learning Kito-ryū, believing Iikubo's throwing techniques in particular to be better than in the schools he had previously studied.
Kodokan judo
Establishment
, written in Japanese.
During the early 1880s, there was no clear separation between the jujutsu that Kano was teaching and the jujutsu that his teachers had taught in the past. Indeed, Kano's Kitō-ryū teacher, Iikubo Tsunetoshi, came to Kano's classes two or three times a week to support Kano's teaching. However, there eventually came the day when student and master began to exchange places, and Kano began to defeat Iikubo during ''randori'':[12]
To name his system, Kano revived a term that Terada Kan'emon, the fifth headmaster of the Kitō-ryū, had adopted when he founded his own style, the Jikishin-ryū: "''jūdō''". The name combined the characters ''jū'' (柔), meaning "pliancy", and ''dō'', which is literally "The Way", but figuratively meaning method.[13][14]
From a technical standpoint, Kano combined the throwing techniques of the Kitō-ryū and the choking and pinning techniques of the Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū. As such, judo's ''Koshiki no Kata'' preserves the traditional forms of the Kitō-ryū with only minor differences from the mainline tradition. Similarly, many of the techniques (but not the forms) of the Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū are preserved in the ''Kime no Kata''.
Initially, Kano borrowed ideas from everywhere. As he wrote in 1898, "By taking together all the good points I had learned of the various schools and adding thereto my own inventions and discoveries, I devised a new system for physical culture and moral training as well as for winning contests."[15] However, after judo was introduced into the Japanese public schools, a process that took place between 1906 and 1917, there was increasing standardization of ''kata'' and tournament technique.
Development
Statue of Kano Jigoro outside the Kodokan Institute in Tokyo.
Kano also oversaw the development and growth of his judo organization, the Kodokan. This was a remarkable effort in itself, as the Kodokan's enrollment grew from fewer than a dozen students in 1882 to more than a thousand ''dan''-graded members by 1911.[16]
In May or June 1882, Kano started the Kodokan dojo in space belonging to the Eishoji Temple.[17] Kano had only a handful of students at this time, but they improved their technique through regular contests with local police jujutsu teams.[18][19][20]
The Kodokan moved to a 60-mat space in April 1890.[21] In December 1893, the Kodokan started moving to a larger space located in Tomizaka-cho, Koishikawa-cho, and this move was complete by February 1894.[17]
The Kodokan's first ''gankeiko'', or winter training, took place at the Tomizaka-cho dojo during the winter of 1894-1895. Midsummer training, or ''shochugeiko'', started in 1896. "In order to inure the pupil to the two extremes of heat and cold and to cultivate the virtue of perseverance", Britain's E.J. Harrison wrote:[23]
During the late 1890s, the Kodokan moved two more times, first to a 207-mat space in November 1897, and then to a 314-mat space in January 1898.[21] In 1909, Kano incorporated the Kodokan, and endowed it with ¥10,000 (then about U.S. $4,700). The reason, said ''Japan Times'' on 30 March, 1913, was "so that this wonderful institution might be able to reconstruct, for that is what it really does, the moral and physical nature of the Japanese youth, without its founder's personal attention."
The Kodokan moved one more time during Kano's lifetime, and on 21 March, 1934, the Kodokan dedicated this 510-mat facility. Guests at the opening included the Belgian, Italian, and Afghan ambassadors to Japan.[25] In 1958, when the Kodokan moved to its current 8-story, 986-mat, facility, this building was sold to the Japan Karate Association.
Ideals
On 18 April, 1888, Kano and Reverend Thomas Lindsay presented a lecture called "Jiujitsu: The Old Samurai Art of Fighting without Weapons" to the Asiatic Society of Japan. This lecture took place at the British Embassy in Tokyo. Its theme was that the main principle of judo involved gaining victory by yielding to strength.[26]
Being an idealist, Kano had broad aims for judo, which he saw as something that simultaneously encompassed self-defense, physical culture, and moral behavior.[27]
In 1915, Kano gave this definition to judo:[28]
In 1918, Kano added:[29]
The Kodokan dojo main entrance, Tokyo, Japan.
During March 1922, Kano brought all this to fruition through the introduction of the Kodokan Bunkakai, or Kodokan Cultural Association. This organization held its first meeting at Tokyo's Seiyoken Hotel on 5 April 1922, and held its first public lecture three days later at the YMCA hall in Kanda. The mottoes of the Kodokan Cultural Association were "Good Use of Spiritual and Physical Strength" and "Prospering in Common for Oneself and Others." Although those are literal translations, the phrases were usually translated into English as "Maximum Efficiency with Minimum Effort" and "Mutual Welfare and Benefit." The theories of this organization were described in some detail in an article published in ''Living Age'' in September 1922.[30]
Professional life
Educator
Although Kano promoted judo whenever he could, he earned his living as an educator.
Kano entered Tokyo Imperial University during June 1881. He majored in political science and economics, which at that time were taught by the Department of Aesthetics and Morals. He graduated in July 1882, and the following month he began work as a professor, fourth class, at the Gakushuin, or Peers School, in Tokyo.[31] In 1883, Kano was appointed professor of economics at Komaba Agricultural College (now the Faculty of Agriculture at University of Tokyo), but during April 1885, he returned to Gakushuin, with the position of principal.
In January 1891, Kano was appointed to a position at the Ministry of Education. In August 1891, he gave up this position to become a dean at the Fifth Higher Normal School (present-day Kumamoto University). One of the teachers at Fifth Higher between 1891 and 1893 was Lafcadio Hearn. Around this same time, Kano married. His wife, Sumako Takezoe, was the daughter of a former Japanese ambassador to Korea. Eventually, the couple had six daughters and three sons.[32][33]
During the summer of 1892, Kano went to Shanghai to help establish a program that would allow Chinese students to study in Japan. Kano revisited Shanghai during 1905, 1915, and 1921.
In January 1898, Kano was appointed director of primary education at the Ministry of Education, and in August 1899, he received a grant that allowed him to study in Europe. His ship left Yokohama on 13 September, 1899, and he arrived in Marseilles on 15 October. He spent about a year in Europe, and during this trip, he visited Paris, Berlin, Brussels, Amsterdam, and London. He returned to Japan in 1901.[34] Soon after returning to Japan, he resumed his post as president of Tokyo Higher Normal School, and he remained in this position until his retirement on 16 January, 1920.[35]
John Dewey, a United States educator whose methods had influence upon Kano's teaching methodology.
Considering that he majored in political science and economics, Kano's family thought that after graduating from university, he would pursue a career in some government ministry. Indeed, through influential friends of his father's, he was initially offered a position with the Ministry of Finance. However, his love for teaching led him instead to accept a position teaching at Gakushuin. The students of Japan's elite attended Gakushuin and were of higher social positions than their teachers. The students were allowed to ride in rickshaws (''jinrikisha'') right to the doors of the classes, whereas teachers were forbidden. The teachers often felt compelled to visit the homes of these students whenever summoned to give instruction or advice. In effect, the teachers were treated as servants.
Kano believed this to be unacceptable. He refused to play such a subservient role when teaching his students. To Kano, a teacher must command respect. At the same time, he employed the latest European and American pedagogical methods. The theories of the American educator John Dewey especially influenced him.[36] Kano's manner had the desired effect upon the students, but the administration was slower to warm to his methods and it was not until the arrival of a new principal that Kano's ideas found acceptance.
All this is to say that Kano's educational philosophy was a combination of both traditional Japanese neo-Confucianism and contemporary European and American philosophies, to include Instrumentalism, Utilitarianism, and "evolutionary progressivism", as Social Darwinism was then known.
The goals of Kano's educational philosophies and methods (indeed, the goals of most Japanese educational programs of the early 20th century) were to 1) develop minds, bodies, and spirits in equal proportion, 2) increase patriotism and loyalty, especially to the Emperor, 3) teach public morality, and 4) increase physical strength and stamina, especially for the purpose of making young men more fit for military service.[37]
Calisthenics, especially as done in the huge formations favored at the time, could be boring, and at the high school and college levels, games such as baseball and rugby were more often spectator sports than a practical source of physical exercise for the masses. Moreover, at elite levels, baseball, football, and even judo did not put much emphasis on moral or intellectual development. Instead, elite coaches and athletes tended to emphasize winning, at almost any cost.[38]
For Kano, the answer to this connundrum was one word: judo. Not judo in the sense of simply throwing other people around, and definitely not judo in the sense of winning at any cost. Instead, it was judo in the sense of "Maximum Efficiency with Minimum Effort" and "Mutual Welfare and Benefit." Or, as Kano himself put it to a reporter in 1938: "When yielding is the highest efficient use of energy, then yielding is judo."[39]
International Olympics Committee
Kano became active in the activities of the International Olympics Committee (IOC) in 1909. This came about after Kristian Hellstrøm of the Swedish Olympic Committee wrote to the governments of Japan and China to ask if they were going to send teams to the 1912 Olympics.[40] The Japanese government did not want to embarrass itself on an international stage by saying no, so the Ministry of Education was told to look into this. The Ministry logically turned to Kano, who was a physical educator with recent experience in Europe. Kano agreed to represent Japan at the International Olympics Committee, and, after talking to the French ambassador to Japan and reading pamphlets sent by the Swedes, he got, in his words, "a fairly good idea of what the Olympic Games were."[41]
Toward fulfilling his duties as a member, in 1912, Kano helped establish the Japan Amateur Athletic Association (Dai Nippon Tai-iku Kyokai), which had the mission of overseeing amateur sport in Japan. Kano was the official representative of Japan to the Olympics in Stockholm in 1912, and he was involved in organizing the Far Eastern Championship Games held in Osaka during May 1917. In 1920, Kano represented Japan at the Antwerp Olympics, and during the early 1920s, he served on the Japanese Council of Physical Education. He did not play much part in organizing the Far Eastern Championship Games held in Osaka in May 1923, nor did he attend the 1924 Olympics in Paris, but he did represent Japan at the Olympics in Amsterdam (1928), Los Angeles (1932), and Berlin (1936). From 1931 to 1938, he was also one of the leading international spokesmen in Japan's bid for the 1940 Olympics.[42][43]
Kano's chief goal in all this was, in his words, to gather people together for a common cause, with friendly feeling.[44] His goals did not, however, particularly involve getting judo into the Olympics. As he put it in a letter to Britain's Gunji Koizumi in 1936:[45]
Legacy
In 1934, Kano quit giving public exhibitions. The reason was failing health, probably compounded by kidney stones. "People don’t seem to think he will live much longer", the British judoka Sarah Mayer wrote friends in London.[46] Nevertheless, Kano continued attending important Kodokan events such as ''kagami-biraki'' (New Years' ceremonies) whenever he could, and he continued participating in Olympics business.
In May 1938, Kano died at sea, while on board the NYK Line motor vessel MV ''Hikawa Maru''.[47] Because the Japanese merchant fleet of the 1930s used Tokyo time wherever it was in the world, the Japanese date of death was 4 May 1938 at about 5:33 a.m. JST, whereas the international date of death was 3 May 1938 at 8:33 p.m. UTC.[48] The cause of death was officially listed as pneumonia.[49] During the 1990s, there appeared allegations that Kano was murdered by poisoning rather than dying of pneumonia.[50] Although this conspiracy theory proved popular on the Internet, there is no known contemporary documentation to support it.
Judo did not die with Kano. Instead, during the 1950s, judo clubs sprang up throughout the world, and in 1972, judo became an official Olympic sport. Kano's posthumous reputation was therefore assured. Nonetheless, his true legacy was his idealism. As Kano said in a speech given in 1934, "Nothing under the sun is greater than education. By educating one person and sending him into the society of his generation, we make a contribution extending a hundred generations to come."
Published works
★ Kano, Jigoro. (October 1898 - December 1903). ''Kokushi''.
★ Lindsay, Thomas and Kano, Jigoro. (1889, 1915 reprint). "The Old Samurai Art of Fighting without Weapons", ''Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan'', XVI, Pt II, pp. 202-217.[14]
★ Kano, Jigoro. (Jan. 1915 - December 1918). ''Jūdō.''
★ Kano, Jigoro. (1922). "Jiudo [''sic'']: The Japanese Art of Self Defence", ''Living Age'', 314, pp. 724-731.[15]
★ Kano, Jigoro. (1932). "The Contribution of Jiudo [''sic''] to Education", Journal of Health and Physical Education, 3, pp. 37-40, 58 (originally a lecture given at the University of Southern California on the occasion of the Xth Olympiad).[16]
★ Kano, Jigoro. (1934). "Principles of Judo and Their Applications to All Phases of Human Activity", unpublished lecture given at the Parnassus Society, Athens, Greece, on 5 June, 1934, reprinted as "Principles of Judo" in ''Budokwai Quarterly Bulletin'', April 1948, pp. 37-42.[17]
★ Kano, Jigoro. (1936). "Olympic Games and Japan", ''Dai Nippon'', pp. 197-199. In Thomas A. Green and Joseph R. Svinth, eds., ''Martial Arts in the Modern World''. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood, 2003, pp. 167-172.
★ Kano, Jigoro. (1937). ''Judo (jujutsu) by Prof. Jigorō Kanō.'' Tokyo: Board of Tourist Industry, Japanese Government Railways.
★ Kano, Jigoro. (1937). "Jujutsu and Judo; What Are They?" Tokyo: Kodokwan.
★ Kano, Jigoro. (Undated.) ''Jujutsu Becomes Judo.''[18]
★ Kano, Jigoro. (1972). ''Kanō Jigorō, watakushi no shōgai to jūdō.'' Tokyo: Shin Jinbutsu Oraisha.
★ Kano, Jigoro. (1981). ''Kanō Jigorō no kyōiku to shisō.'' Publication data unknown.
★ Kano, Jigoro. (1983). ''Kanō Jigorō chosakushū.'' Tokyo: Gogatsu Shobo.
★ Kano, Jigoro. (1986). ''Kodokan judo/Jigoro Kano; edited under the supervision of the Kodokan Editorial Committee''. Tokyo and New York: Kodansha International.
★ Kano, Jigoro. (1995). ''Kanō Jigorō taikei/kanshū Kōdōkan.'' Tokyo: Hon no Tomosha.
See also
★ Hard and soft (martial arts)
★ Judo technique
★ Kosen judo
★ Kuzushi
★ Sanshiro Sugata
★ The Principle of Ju
References
1. Judo was not, however, the first Asian martial art to be demonstrated at the Olympics. Instead, that honor appears to belong to the Chinese martial arts demonstrated at the 1936 Olympics. For more on this, see Andrew Morris, ''Marrow of the Nation: A History of Sport and Physical Culture in Republican China'' (Berkeley: University of California, 2004), pp. 223-227.
2. Strictly speaking, the name was Tokyo Normal School from 1901 until 1903, and Tokyo Higher Normal School from 1903 to 1924. Tokyo Higher Normal School is today viewed as an ancestor of the Institute of Health and Sport Sciences at University of Tsukuba For more on this, see the Institute of Health and Sport Science's web site. [1]
3. Histoire du Judo, , Tsuneo, Tomita, Revue Judo Kodokan,
4.
5. The Kodokan Judo, , Risei, Kano, Kodokan, ,
6. The Father of Judo: A Biography of Jigoro Kano, , Brian, Watson, Kodansha International, ,
7.
8. Twentieth Century Warriors, Prominent Men in the Oriental Fighting Arts, , Andy, Adams, Ohara, ,
9. Jigoro Kano's Thoughts on Judo, with Special Reference to the Approach of Judo Thought during His Jujutsu Training Years, , Mineo, Maekawa, Bulletin of the Association for the Scientific Studies on Judo,
10.
11.
12. Watanabe, Jiichi and Avakian, Lindy. ''The Secrets of Judo''. Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle Co., 1960. Retrieved February 14, 2007 from [2] (click on "Thoughts on Training").
13. Waterhouse, David. "Kanō Jigorō and the Beginnings of the Jūdō Movement", Toronto, symposium, 1982, pp. 170-171.
14. Draeger, Donn F. ''Martial Arts and Ways of Japan: Volume II; Classical Budo and Bujutsu''. Weatherhill, Tokyo, 1973.
15. Kano, Risei. ''The Kodokan Judo''. Tokyo: Kodokan, 1951.
16. According to data presented by Yokoyama Sakujiro, in 1911, the Kodokan had two members ranked 7-dan, three members ranked 6-dan, six members ranked 5-dan, 30 members ranked 4-dan, 120 members ranked 3-dan, 300 members ranked 2-dan, and 750 ranked 1-dan. Source: Paul Nurse, "The Beginnings of Kodokan Judō: 1882-1938", unpublished manuscript, 1983.
17. ''Japan Times'', March 30, 1913; see also Kodokan.
18. Abel, Laszlo. "The Meiji Period Police Bujutsu Competitions: Judo versus Jujutsu", ''JMAS Newsletter'', December 1984, v. 2:3, pp. 10-14.[3].
19. Muromoto, Wayne. "Judo's Decisive Battle: The Great Tournament Between Kodokan Judo's Four Heavenly Lords and the Jujutsu Masters", ''Furyu: The Budo Journal'', v. 3.[4]
20. Holmes, Ben. "Shiro Saigo: Judo's Secret Weapon?" [5]
21. For dates, see Kodokan.
22. ''Japan Times'', March 30, 1913; see also Kodokan.
23. Harrison, E.J. ''The Fighting Spirit of Japan.'' Woodstock, New York: Overlook Press, 1982, p. 50.
24. For dates, see Kodokan.
25. ''Japan Times'', March 23, 1934.
26. Lindsay, Thomas and Kano, Jigoro. "The Old Samurai Art of Fighting without Weapons", ''Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan'', XVI, Pt II, 1889, 1915 reprint, pp. 202-217,[6]
27. Kano, Jigoro. "The Life of Jigoro Kano". Reprinted in ''AikiNews'', 85, 1990.[7]
28. Murata, Naoki. "From 'Jutsu to Dō: The Birth of Kōdōkan Judo." In Alexander Bennett, ed., ''Budo Perspectives.'' Auckland: Kendo World, 2005, p. 147-148.
29. Murata, Naoki. "From 'Jutsu to Dō: The Birth of Kōdōkan Judo." In Alexander Bennett, ed., ''Budo Perspectives.'' Auckland: Kendo World, 2005, p. 150.
30. Kano, Jigoro. "The Contribution of Jiudo [''sic''] to Education", ''Journal of Health and Physical Education'', 3, 1932, pp. 37-40, 58.[8]
31. Life and Death of Professor Kano, , , Anonymous (Henri Plée, ed.), Judo International,
32. Ishikawa, Yasujiro. ''Who's Who in Japan,'' fifth edition. Tokyo: Keiseisha, 1916, p. 256.
33. ''Japan Times,'' July 7, 1914.
34.
35. ''Japan Times'', January 12, 1920; ''Japan Times'', January 15, 1920; ''Japan Times'', January 17, 1920.
36. Dewey visited the Kodokan on 31 March, 1919. For Dewey's thoughts on Kano's methods, see John Dewey and Alice Chipman Dewey, ''Letters from China and Japan'', edited by Evelyn Dewey (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1920), pp. 93-94.
37. Amano, Ikuo, ''Education and Examination in Modern Japan'', translated by William K. Cummings and Fumiko Cummings (Tokyo: University of Tokyo, 1990), pp. 71-81 and Harries, Meirion and Susie Harries, ''Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army'' (New York: Random House, 1991), pp. 170-175.
38. ''Japan Times'', August 17, 1936, p. 3.
39. ''Japan Times'', May 17, 1938, p. 5.
40. Guttman, Allen. ''The Olympics: A History of the Modern Games'' (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), p. 31.
41. Kano, Jigoro. "Olympic Games and Japan," ''Dai Nippon'', 1936, p. 197.
42. Svinth, Joseph R. "Fulfilling His Duty as a Member: Jigoro Kano and the Japanese Bid for the 1940 Olympics."[9]
43. Svinth, Joseph R. "Jigoro Kano in North America", ''The Kano Society.''[10]
44. Kano, Jigoro. "Olympic Games and Japan," ''Dai Nippon'', 1936, p. 199.
45. Brousse, Michel and Matsumoto, David. ''Judo in the U.S.: A Century of Dedication''. Berkeley, California: North Atlantic Books, 2005, p. 110.
46. Letters from Sarah Mayer to Gunji Koizumi, annotated by Joseph R. Svinth.[11][12]
47. MV HIKAWA MARU (1930)
48. ''Japan Times'', May 7, 1938.
49. Hirasawa, K. "The Death of Professor Jigoro Kano, Shi-Han", ''Judo International'', edited by Henri Plée. Paris, 1950, pp. 3-4.[13]
50. Brown, Carl. ''Law and the Martial Arts''. Black Belt Communications, 1998.
External links
★ Koshiki no kata Kano Jigoro with Yamashita Yoshiaki
★ Kano Jigoro demonstrates throw
★ Kano Jigoro archive footage
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