Rear Admiral Sir 'John Franklin'
FRGS (
April 15,
1786 –
June 11,
1847) was a
British Royal Navy officer and
Arctic explorer who mapped almost two thirds of the northern coastline of
North America and whose last expedition disappeared while attempting to chart and navigate a section of the
Northwest Passage in the
Canadian Arctic. The entire crew perished from starvation and exposure after Franklin died and the expedition's icebound ships were abandoned in desperation. Franklin also served as governor of
Tasmania for several years.
Early life
Franklin was born in
Spilsby,
Lincolnshire in
1786 and educated at
King Edward VI Grammar School, Louth. He was the ninth of 12 children of a Lincolnshire shopkeeper. One of his sisters became the mother of
Emily Tennyson (wife of the poet).
Franklin's father initially opposed his son's interest in a career at sea. However, Franklin was determined and his father reluctantly allowed him to go on a trial voyage with a merchant ship. This hardened young Franklin's resolve, so at the age of 14, his father secured him a
Royal Navy appointment on
HMS ''Polyphemus''. Franklin was later present at a number of historic voyages and battles. These included the
Battle of Copenhagen in
1801, an expedition to explore the coast of Australia on
HMS ''Investigator'' with his uncle, Captain
Matthew Flinders, a return to the Napoleonic Wars, serving aboard
HMS ''Bellerophon'' at the
Battle of Trafalgar in
1805, and he was at the
Battle of New Orleans.
1819: First Arctic Expedition
Franklin first travelled to the Arctic in 1818, as a lieutenant under the command of David Buchan, and became fascinated by it. He led a disastrous overland expedition into the
Northwest Territories of
Canada along the
Coppermine River in
1819-
1822, losing 11 of the 20 men in his party. Most died of starvation, but there was also at least one murder and suggestions of cannibalism. The survivors were forced to eat
lichen and even attempted to eat their own leather boots. This gained Franklin the nickname of "the man who ate his boots".
1823: Marriage and Second Arctic Expedition
In
1823, after returning to England, Franklin married the poet
Eleanor Anne Porden. Their daughter, Eleanor Isabella, was born the following year. Eleanor died of
tuberculosis in
1825, shortly after persuading her husband not to let her ill-health prevent him from setting off on another expedition to the
Arctic. This expedition, a trip down the
Mackenzie River to explore the shores of the
Beaufort Sea, was better supplied and more successful than his last.
In
1828, he was knighted by
George IV and in the same year married
Jane Griffin, a friend of his first wife, and a seasoned traveler who proved indomitable in the course of their life together.
1836: Governor of Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania)
Franklin was appointed
Governor of Tasmania in 1836, but was removed from office in 1843. He did not endear himself with the local civil servants, who particularly disliked his humane ideals and his attempts to reform the Tasmanian penal colony. His wife, Lady Jane, was quite liberated for a woman of her day, known for "roughing it" to the extent that an expedition had to be mounted after she and Franklin became lost in the wild. Such exploits further distanced the couple from "proper" society, and may have contributed to Franklin's recall. Nevertheless, he was popular among the people of Tasmania, who, upon his death, erected a statue of him in Franklin Square, in
Hobart. His wife worked to set up a college, a museum and botanical gardens. The village of Franklin, on the Huon River, is named in his honour.
1845-48 Northwest Passage Expedition
The Proposal
Exploration of the Arctic coastal mainland since Franklin's last Arctic expedition had left less than 500
km of unexplored Arctic coastline. It was decided that a well-equipped Arctic expedition would be sent to finally chart the Northwest Passage. After
Sir James Ross declined the offer of commanding another polar expedition (owing to a promise to his wife), the invitation was extended to Franklin, who eagerly accepted, despite being quite advanced in years. As a compromise, a younger Captain James Fitzjames was given the command of HMS Erebus, with Franklin becoming the official expedition commander.
Captain Francis Rawdon Moira Crozier, who previously commanded HMS Terror during the Ross 1841-44 Antarctica expedition, was appointed the executive officer and commander of HMS Terror on this voyage.
Franklin was given command on February 7,
1845, and official instructions on May 5, 1845.
[1]
HMS Erebus | HMS Terror | Crew and Provisions
HMS ''Erebus'' (370 tons) and
HMS ''Terror'' (340 tons) were sturdily built, and were outfitted with a number of recent inventions. These included steam engines from the London and Greenwich Railway that enabled the ships to make four knots on their own power, a novel steam heating device for the comfort of the crew, a mechanism that enabled the iron rudder and propeller to be drawn into iron wells to prevent their damage, large ships' libraries of over 1000 books, and three years' worth of both conventionally preserved and tinned preserved food supplies. Unfortunately, the latter was supplied from a cut-rate provisioner,
Stephen Goldner, and he was awarded the contract only a few months before the ships were to sail. Thus, though Goldner's "patent process" was in fact a sound one, the haste with which he had to prepare thousands of cans of food led to sloppily-applied beads of solder on the can's interior edges, allowing the lead to leach into the contents.
Most of the crew were Englishmen, many of them from the north-country, with a small number of Irishmen and Scotsmen. They were handpicked by the Admiralty, and with the advanced pay exploratory service members received, it was quite likely they were a good crew.
Expedition Sails
The Franklin Expedition set sail from
Greenhithe, England on the morning of
May 19,
1845, with a handpicked crew of 24 officers and 110 men (134). From there the ships traveled north to
Aberdeen to pick up supplies. Lieutenant Graham Gore is reputed to have been responsible for ridding
HMS ''Erebus'' of alcohol that was smuggled aboard ship. From Scotland, the ships sailed to Greenland with HMS ''Rattler'' and transport ship, ''Barretto Junior''.
After misjudging the location of Whitefish Bay,
Disko Island,
Greenland, the expedition backtracked and finally harbored in that far north outpost. There, they unloaded supplies from the supply ships; slaughtered the livestock that was carried to the destination as fresh meat; did scientific observations (for which the younger lieutenants helped Sir Franklin up the crags); tested a novel rubber inflatable boat; and wrote their last letters home. Prior to their final departure from civilization, five crewmembers were discharged and sent home upon the ''Rattler'' and ''Barretto Junior'', with the final ships' muster at 129 souls.
The expedition was last seen by Europeans on
July 26,
1845, when Captain Dannett, of the whaler ''Prince of Wales'', encountered them in
Melville Bay moored to an iceberg.
The Search for Survivors
After two years and no word from the expedition,
Franklin's wife urged the Admiralty to send a search party. This was the largest group they had ever lost. But the crew carried supplies for three years, so the Admiralty waited another year before launching the search and offering a £20,000 reward for success. Not only was this a huge sum for the time, but Franklin's disappearance had captured the popular imagination. At one point, there were 10 British and two American ships headed for the Arctic. (More ships and men were lost looking for Franklin than in the expedition). Ballads telling of Franklin and his fate became popular. The ballad
Lady Franklin's Lament commemorated Lady Franklin's search for her lost husband.
[2]
In the summer of
1850, a number of expeditions, including three from England as well as one from the
United States, joined in the search. The search ships converged off the east coast of
Beechey Island, where the first relics of the Franklin expedition were found, including the graveyard of three Franklin Expedition crewmen:
★ Chief Petty Officer John Shaw Torrington (b.
December 10,
1825,
Manchester, England; d.
January 1,
1846), Leading Stoker, HMS ''Terror'';
[3]
★ Able Seaman John Hartnell (b. 1820,
Brompton,
Kent, England; d.
January 4,
1846), HMS ''Erebus''; and
★ Private William Braine (b. March, 1815,
Oakhill,
Somerset, England; d.
April 3,
1846),
Royal Marines, Western Division,
Woolrich, HMS ''Erebus''.
No official messages had been left there by the Franklin party to provide further clues for the searchers.
[4][5]
Overland Searches
In
1854, explorer
John Rae discovered further evidence of the Franklin party's fate. Rae was not searching for Franklin at all, but rather surveying the
Boothia Peninsula on behalf of the
Hudson's Bay Company . On this journey, Rae met an
Inuk near
Pelly Bay (now Kugaaruk, Nunavut) on
April 21,
1854, who told him of a party of 35 to 40 white men who had died of starvation near the mouth of the
Back River. The Inuit also showed him many objects that were identified as having belonged to Franklin and his men. In particular, Rae purchased from the Pelly Bay Inuit several silver forks and spoons, which were later identified as belonging to the following crewmen:
Robert Osmer Sargent (a
mate aboard HMS ''Erebus''), Captain
James Fitzjames,
Captain Crozier, and Captain Sir John Franklin. Rae's report was sent by to the Admiralty and Lord's Commissioner's late in October, 1854. Upon receipt of the report, the Admiralty urged the Hudson Bay Company to send an expedition south of the Back River to search for other signs of the Franklin Expedition.
[6]
Next were Chief Factor James Anderson and HBC employee James Stewart, who, with two canoes, traversed north to the mouth of the Back River. On
July 30,
1855, near the outlet of Lake Franklin, Anderson and Stewart encountered a band of Inuit, who told them of a group of ''qallunaat'' (Inuktitut for "Whites") who had starved to death along the coast.
[6] On
August 2,
1855, Anderson and Stewart discovered further proof of the Franklin Party's presence in a cache on
Montreal Island. There, a piece of wood with "Erebus" on it and another engraved with the name "Mr. Stanley" (Stephen S. Stanley, MD, Surgeon aboard HMS ''Erebus'') were found.
[6]
Even though the Rae and Andersons' findings were monumental in scope, the Admiralty did not plan another search mission. Britain officially labeled the crew deceased in service, on
March 31,
1854.
[9] Lady Franklin petitioned the State for another search expedition, and being unsuccessful in obtaining funds, personally commissioned one more expedition under
Francis Leopold M'Clintock. The expedition ship purchased via public subscription, the yacht
Fox, sailed from Aberdeen on
July 2,
1857.
The note found by M'Clintock in May 1859 in a cairn south of
Back Bay, King William Island, detailing the fate of the Franklin expedition
In May of
1859, the M'Clintock party found a document in a
cairn on
King William Island left by Captain Crozier and Captain Fitzjames, Franklin's second-in-command. It contained two messages. The first, dated
May 28,
1847, was unexceptional, saying that the expedition had wintered off King William Island, that they were "All well", and Sir John Franklin was commanding. The second message, written in the margins of that same sheet of paper, was much more ominous. The message, dated
April 25,
1848, reported that ''Erebus'' and ''Terror'' had been trapped in the ice for a year and a half and that the crew had abandoned the ships on
April 22. Twenty-four officers and crew had died, including Sir John Franklin on
June 11,
1847--just two weeks after the date of the first note. Captain Crozier was commanding the expedition, and the 105 survivors would start out the next day, heading south towards the
Back River.
[10]
M'Clintock also found several bodies on the southern coast of King William Island. One body, still clothed, was searched, and some papers were found, including a seaman's certificate for Chief Petty Officer Henry Peglar (b. 1808), Captain of the Foretop, HMS ''Terror''. However, since the uniform was that of a ship's steward, it is more likely that the body was that of Thomas Armitage, Gun-room Steward on HMS "Terror" and a longtime shipmate of Peglar's who was returning his friend's papers. M'Clintock found an astonishing amount of abandoned equipment, including a
longboat with two skeletons inside and such detritus as crockery from the ships, utensils, carpet slippers, sheet-lead, and numerous books, among them a copy of
''The Vicar of Wakefield''. He also took testimony from the Inuit about the expedition's disastrous end.
The expedition of Frederick Schwatka, twenty years later, found the southernmost remnants of the expedition at a place on the
Adelaide Peninsula, south of King William Island, later named "Starvation Cove". They were still well north of Crozier's stated goal, the Back River, and several hundred miles away from the nearest Western outpost, on the
Great Slave Lake.
Forensic Analysis
1981: King William Island Excavations
On June 25,
1981,
[11] University of Alberta Professor of Anthropology
Owen Beattie began the
1845-48 Franklin Expedition Forensic Anthropology Project (FEFAP), when he and his team of researchers and field assistants embarked from
Edmonton to
King William Island, transversing the island's western coast as Franklin's men did 132 years before. FEFAP hoped to find artifacts and possible human remains in order to use modern forensics to discover the fate of the lost 129.
[12]
Although the trek successfully found archeological artifacts related to 19th century Europeans, and undisturbed disarticulate human remains, Dr. Beattie was disappointed that more remains weren't found.
[13] While back at the University of Alberta offices, Beattie compared notes from the survey with John Savelle and noticed some disturbing patterns that did suggest
cannibalism.
To study this finding more, the skeletons (including Inuit bones found along the trek) were sent to the Alberta Soil and Feed Testing Laboratory for trace element analysis,
[14] and Dr. Beattie assembled another team to King William Island.
1982: King William Island Excavations
June 28, 1982 Owen Beattie, Walt Kowall, and Arne Carlson landed near Seal Bay, King William Island.
[15] Supplied with Lieutenant Frederick Schwatka's descriptions of his trek 100 years earlier,
[16] the explorers traced Schwatka's journey in an attempt to discover more artifacts and remains.
After crossing the
Rivière de la Rocquette and its tedious mud flats, research assistant Ariensik Tungilik found a
tibia poking out of the ground near the location of Captain
Francis Leopold McClintock's "boat place," where the skeletons of two Franklin crewmen had been discovered over a century before. Later trace element analysis noted a somewhat unexpected spike in
lead content within the bones (226ppm, which was ten times higher than the control samples of 26-36ppm).
[14]
1984: Beechey Island Excavations/Exhumations
After obtaining the permission of surviving relatives,
[18] Beattie's team subsequently visited Beechey Island (
August 10,
1984) to exhume the graves of the only known Franklin Expedition crewmen
[19] and survey Franklin expedition sites there and along the coastline of
Devon Island.
[20] They found about a hundred empty tin cans which had been dumped by the Franklin expedition
[21] and noticed that the seams were poorly soldered with lead, which had likely come in direct contact with the food.
[22]
The anthropological plan was to exhume the first crewmember to die, Leading Stoker John Shaw Torrington, who was the youngest crewman on the expedition, apart from the ships' boys. Then, if time was available, exhume the second man to die, Able Seaman John Hartnell.
[23] All three bodies buried on Beechey Island were eventually found to be extremely well preserved, having undergone natural mummification from being encased in permafrost.
After the monumental exhumation and autopsy on
August 18,
1984, of
John Torrington, and the excavation of John Hartnell (whose exhumation was stopped due to weather and time restrictions),
[24][25] the FEFAP team returned to the University of Alberta with their tissue and bone samples.
Releasing their field work findings, and the photo of John Torrington in September, 1984, Dr. Beattie stoked world-wide interest in the case. The thought of a 138 year-old corpse, well preserved in the tundra, "visiting" the 20th century world took hold of many imaginations. The media seized the story and introduced a new generation to the mystery of Sir John Franklin's lost expedition.
1986: Beechey Island Exhumations
This survey was performed with a number of new features, including a camera crew to document the autopsies, (later aired as Nova's "Buried in Ice", in
1988"
[26]) equipment to attempt the first field X-Ray in the far north, by Derek Notman, MD, and a historical clothing expert.
Dr. Beattie and his team noticed that someone else had attempted to exhume Hartnell. The effort had been rough, with a pickaxe destroying the wood lid on the right side. Also, curiously, the coffin plaque was missing.
[27] It was later uncovered that in October, 1852, Captain Belcher first attempted to exhume Hartnell, but was thwarted by the permafrost. A month later, again at the suggestion of Peter Sutherland, MD, Commander Edward A. Inglefield and Sutherland did exhume the able seaman. In finishing the exhumation, Inglefield took the coffin plaque.
[28]
Unlike Hartnell's grave, the grave of Private William Braine was largely intact.
[29] When he was exhumed, it was apparent that he was delayed in being interred. Even though severely emaciated, his coffin was too narrow, so his arms were folded in the back to fit his shoulders into the coffin. Braine also had a broken tooth,
[30] and an old severe concussion on the forehead.
[30] A large copper hole punched plaque adorned his coffin lid.
[32]
Forensic Results
The FEFAP field surveys, excavations and exhumations spanned over 10 years. The results of this comprehensive study from King William Island and Beechey Island artifacts and human remains, showed that with the Beechey Island crew had most likely died of
pneumonia,
[33] and perhaps
tuberculosis (as evidenced in Braine having
Pott's Disease).
[34] However, toxicological reports indicated
lead poisoning was also a possible factor.
[35][36]
Nevertheless, (blade) cut marks found on bones from some of the crew on King William Island suggest that conditions became so dire there eventually that some resorted to
cannibalism.
[37] In the end, it was likely a combination of bad weather (years locked in ice), disease including scurvy (the lemon juice after three years out of Britain lost its potent vitamin C), poisoned food,
botulism, and simple starvation that killed the entirety of the Franklin Party.
Aftermath
Statue of John Franklin in his home town of Spilsby, Lincolnshire, England.
There are several factors that may have contributed to the loss of the Franklin expedition. Franklin was a product of the mores and social strata of the 19th century; for example, the expedition carried silver plate, crystal decanters, and many extraneous personal effects with them. They are alleged to have attempted to haul much of this heavy gear along with them even after abandoning the ships, possibly due to lead poisoning-induced loss of judgment. Combined with the attributed Western European mindset of the day of "civilized" people who would not descend into "tribal" ways to survive, he and his expedition then would be unwilling or unable to learn survival techniques from the natives.. Inuit oral histories, the source of the allegations, also speak of observations of cannibalism among the expedition members.
Moreover, their expedition was a naval one, not equipped for hiking over land. Their ships were locked in the ice for two winters, stuck in one of the most ice choked straits of the Arctic, the
Victoria Strait. They also had the misfortune of sailing in a period which proved to be colder than average, including probably at least one season in which the ice did not break up at all. The party's morale and cohesion were possibly damaged by psychological effects of
lead poisoning from the
solder that sealed their
tinned food supply. Lead was discovered in both the King William Island and Beechey Island human remains. They also seem to have been weakened by internal bleeding caused by
scurvy, which must have beset the crew after the preventive lemon juice they carried lost its potency. This effect was observed by visual examination in European skeletal remains found along the Franklin Expedition escape route.
[38]
For years after the loss of the Franklin Party, the Victorian media portrayed Franklin as a hero, leading his men in the quest for the Northwest Passage. At the constant pressure of Lady Franklin, stories about the expedition's disappointing demise were suppressed, and her husband was elevated to a hero. A statue of Franklin in his home town bears the inscription 'Sir John Franklin — Discoverer of the North West Passage'. Statues of Franklin outside the
Athenaeum in
London, and in
Tasmania, bear similar inscriptions.
An alternative view is that Franklin was portrayed as a hero because of his many achievements, and that his death trying to discover the Northwest Passage did not diminish his standing in the eyes of the public. In fact, the expedition's fate, including the possibility of cannibalism, was not suppressed but in fact widely reported and debated in the newspapers of the day. The mystery still surrounding Franklin's last expedition was the subject of a 2006 episode of the
NOVA TV series,
Arctic Passage, and a 2007 documentary on
Discovery HD Theater.
Literary and Cultural Reception
★ In the early 1960s, the Canadian poet
Gwendolyn MacEwen wrote, and broadcast on
CBC radio, a verse play titled,
Terror and Erebus that told of the failed expedition from various perspectives.
★ The 1981 song "
Northwest Passage" by
Stan Rogers makes reference to John Franklin.
★ The ballad "
Lady Franklin's Lament", aka "Lord Franklin", has been recorded by numerous artists, including
Martin Carthy,
Pentangle,
Sinéad O'Connor, and the
Pearlfishers. The melody was also used for
Bob Dylan's song "
Bob Dylan's Dream", as well as
David Wilcox's "Jamie's Secret".
★ The song "I'm Already There" on the
Fairport Convention album
Over the Next Hill is sung from the point of view of a member of one of Franklin's Expeditions.
★ "Buried In Ice" is a popular children's book about the Franklin Expedition.
★ James Taylor and Metallica have both recorded songs inspired by the excavations of the graves of some members of the Franklin Expedition.
★ The short story ''Age of Lead'', by
Margaret Atwood, included in the collection "Wilderness Tips", was inspired by "Frozen In Time: The Fate of the Franklin Expedition", by Owen Beattie and John Geiger. Atwood has also written several essays on Franklin, including in her book "Strange Things", and an introduction to "Frozen In Time".
★ "The Ice Child", a novel by Elizabeth McGregor, was based on the research described in "Frozen In Time".
★ The book ''The Terror'', a novel by
Dan Simmons, features a supernatural take on the events of John Franklin's Arctic expedition.
★ The novel ''
Solomon Gursky Was Here'' by
Mordecai Richler has a subplot involving the last Franklin expedition.
★ The song "900," the B-side to the
Breeders' 1993
Cannonball single, has lyrics based on the Franklin expedition, particularly referencing the unnecessary luggage they carried south.
★ The novel
The Discovery of Slowness by German author
Sten Nadolny tells its story about the right speed in life along the complete lifeline of Franklin.
★ In
William T. Vollmann's novel ''The Rifles'', the narrator tells his own story of fatal fascination with the Arctic alongside John Franklin's, whom he imagines as his "grave twin."
★ In Robert Edric's novel ''The Broken Lands, a Novel of Arctic Disaster'', a fictionalized account of the final expedition aboard ''Terror'' and ''Erebus''.
Timeline of the Franklin expedition
★ 1845, May 19: Franklin expedition sails from England
★ 1845, July: Expedition docks in
Greenland, sends home five men and a batch of letters
★ 1845, July 28: Last sighting of expedition by Europeans (a whaling ship in
Baffin Bay)
★ 1845-6: Expedition winters on
Beechey Island. Three crewmen die of
tuberculosis and are buried.
★ 1846, September 12: Ships trapped in the ice off
King William Island. They never sail again.
★ 1846-7: Expedition winters on King William Island
★ 1847, May 28: Date of first note, says "All well"
★ 1847, June 11: Franklin dies.
★ 1847-48: Expedition again winters on King William Island
★ 1848, April 22: ''Erebus'' and ''Terror'' abandoned
★ 1848, April 25: Date of second note, saying twenty-four men have died and the survivors plan to start marching south on the 26th to the
Back River
★ 1850: Inuit see forty men walking south on King William Island
★ 1851 (?): Inuk hunter saw four survivors still trying to head south. Last sighting (as reported to
Charles Hall)
★ 1854: Dr. Rae interviews local Inuit, who give him items from the exhibition and tell him the men starved to death, after resorting to cannibalism
★ 1858: McClintock finds the abandoned boat and the message on King William Island
Research
Data: Search Expeditions
Table A: Major Search Expeditions
Table A: Major 1845-48 Sir John Franklin Northwest Passage Expedition Searches[39]| # | Date | Name | Transport |
|---|
| 01. | 1846-1847 | John Rae, MD | Sledging overland |
| 02. | 1847-1849 | Sir John Richardson, MD
John Rae, MD | Sledging overland |
| 03. | 1848-1849 | Captain Sir James Clark Ross, RN
Captain E. J. Bird, RN | HMS Enterprise
HMS Investigator |
| 04. | 1848-1850 | Captain Henry Kellett, RN | HMS Herald |
| 05. | 1848-1852 | Captain Thomas Moore, RN | HMS Plover |
| 06. | 1849-1850 | Lieutenant James Saunders, RN | HMS North Star |
| 07. | 1850-1851 | Lieutenant Edwin J. De Haven, USN
Lieutenant S. P. Griffin, USN | USS Advance
USS Rescue |
| 08. | 1850-1851 | Captain Horatio Thomas Austin, RN
Captain Eramus Ommanney, RN
Lieutenant Sherard Osborn, RN
Lieutenant Bertie Cator, RN | HMS Resolute
HMS Assistance
HMS Intrepid
HMS Pioneer |
| 09. | 1850-1851 | Captain William Penny
Alexander Stewart | Lady Franklin
Sophia |
| 10. | 1850-1851 | Rear Admiral Sir John Ross, RN | Felix |
| 11. | 1850 | Captain C. C. Forsyth | Prince Albert |
| 12. | 1850-1855 | Captain Richard Collinson, RN | HMS Enterprise |
| 13. | 1850-1854 | Commander Robert McClure, RN | HMS Investigator |
| 14. | 1851 | John Rae, MD | Sledging overland |
| 15. | 1851-1852 | Captain William Kennedy | Prince Albert |
| 16. | 1852 | Commander Edward Augustus Inglefield, RN | Isabel |
| 17. | 1852-1854 | Captain Sir Edward Belcher, RN
Lieutenant Sherard Osborn, RN
Captain Henry Kellet, RN
Commander Francis Leopold M'Clintock, RN | HMS Assistance
HMS Pioneer
HMS Resolute
HMS Intrepid |
| 18. | 1852-1854 | William John Samuel Pullen, RN | HMS North Star |
| 19. | 1853 | Captain Edward Augustus Inglefield, RN
William Fawkner, RN | HMS Phoenix
HMS Breadalbane |
| 20. | 1853-1854 | John Rae, MD | Sledging overland |
| 21. | 1853-1855 | Elisha Kent Kane, MD | USS Advance |
| 22. | 1855 | Chief Factor John Anderson
Alexander Stewart | Canoe/overland |
| 23. | 1857-1859 | Captain Francis Leopold M'Clintock, RN
Lieutenant William Robert Hobson, RN | "Fox" |
| 24. | 1869-1869 | Charles Francis Hall | Sledging overland |
| 25. | 1878-1880 | Lieutenant Frederick Schwatka, USA | Sledging overland |
References
Cites
1. Sir John Franklin's Last Voyage: A brief history of the Franklin expedition and the outline of the researches which established the facts of its tragic outcome., , William, Gibson, F.R.G.S., The Beaver,
2. The Voyage of the 'Fox' in the Arctic Seas. A Narrative of the Discovery of the Fate of Sir John Franklin and His Companions, , Francis L., M'Clintock, Boston: Ticknor and Fields, ,
3. 'Iceman' Torrington was last of his line John Geiger
4. Was Murder Uncovered? John Geiger
5. Iceman wasn't 'iced' - Autopsy on seaman reveals no evidence of foul play Carol Picard
6. Overland to Starvation Cove, , Heinrich, Klutschak, University of Toronto Press, ,
7. Overland to Starvation Cove, , Heinrich, Klutschak, University of Toronto Press, ,
8. Overland to Starvation Cove, , Heinrich, Klutschak, University of Toronto Press, ,
9. Iceblink: The Tragic Fate of Sir John Franklin's Lost Polar Expedition, , Scott, Cookman, John Wiley & Sons, ,
10. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/arctic/note-transcript.html
11. Frozen in Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of the Franklin Expedition, , Owen, Beattie, Western Producer Prairie Books, ,
12. Frozen in Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of the Franklin Expedition, , Owen, Beattie, Western Producer Prairie Books, ,
13. Frozen in Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of the Franklin Expedition, , Owen, Beattie, Western Producer Prairie Books, ,
14. Frozen in Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of the Franklin Expedition, , Owen, Beattie, Western Producer Prairie Books, ,
15. Frozen in Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of the Franklin Expedition, , Owen, Beattie, Western Producer Prairie Books, ,
16. Frozen in Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of the Franklin Expedition, , Owen, Beattie, Western Producer Prairie Books, ,
17. Frozen in Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of the Franklin Expedition, , Owen, Beattie, Western Producer Prairie Books, ,
18. Frozen in Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of the Franklin Expedition, , Owen, Beattie, Western Producer Prairie Books, ,
19. Frozen in Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of the Franklin Expedition, , Owen, Beattie, Western Producer Prairie Books, ,
20. Lead Levels in Human Tissues from the Franklin Forensic Project, , W.A., Kowall, International Journal Environmental Analytical Chemistry,
21. Lead Levels in Human Tissues from the Franklin Forensic Project, , W.A., Kowall, International Journal Environmental Analytical Chemistry,
22. Frozen in Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of the Franklin Expedition, , Owen, Beattie, Western Producer Prairie Books, ,
23. Frozen in Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of the Franklin Expedition, , Owen, Beattie, Western Producer Prairie Books, ,
24. Frozen in Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of the Franklin Expedition, , Owen, Beattie, Western Producer Prairie Books, ,
25. Frozen in Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of the Franklin Expedition, , Owen, Beattie, Western Producer Prairie Books, ,
26.
27. Frozen in Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of the Franklin Expedition, , Owen, Beattie, Western Producer Prairie Books, ,
28. Frozen in Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of the Franklin Expedition, , Owen, Beattie, Western Producer Prairie Books, ,
29. Frozen in Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of the Franklin Expedition, , Owen, Beattie, Western Producer Prairie Books, ,
30. Frozen in Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of the Franklin Expedition, , Owen, Beattie, Western Producer Prairie Books, ,
31. Frozen in Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of the Franklin Expedition, , Owen, Beattie, Western Producer Prairie Books, ,
32. Frozen in Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of the Franklin Expedition, , Owen, Beattie, Western Producer Prairie Books, ,
33. The last Franklin Expedition: report of a postmortem examination of a crew member, , Roger, Amy, Canadian Medical Association Journal (CMAJ),
34. Arctic Paleoradiology: Portable Radiographic Examination of Two Frozen Sailors from the Franklin Expedition (1845-48), , Derek N.H., Notman, American Journal of Radiology (AJR),
35. Did solder kill Franklin's men?, , Walter, Kowall, Nature,
36. Lead Levels in Human Tissues from the Franklin Forensic Project, , W.A., Kowall, International Journal Environmental Analytical Chemistry,
37. The Final Days of the Franklin Expedition: New Skeletal Evidence, , Anne, Keenleyside, Arctic,
38. Frozen in Ice: Unlocking the Secrets of the Franklin Expedition, , Owen, Beattie, Western Producer Prairie Books, ,
39. , , Owen, Beattie, Western Producer Prairie Books, ,
Books
Historical
★
NOVA -
Arctic Passage Part 1 - Prisoners Of The Ice (TV documentary). See also program
transcript.
★ ''Frozen In Time: The Fate of the Franklin Expedition'' (Revised edition),
Owen Beattie and John Geiger 2004
★ ''Unraveling the Franklin Mystery: Inuit Testimony''. David C. Woodman
★ ''The Arctic Grail'',
Pierre Berton
★ ''Deadly Winter'', Martyn Beardsley
★ ''The Royal Navy in Polar Exploration, Frobisher to Ross'', E C Coleman 2006 ISBN 0-7524-3660-0
★ ''The Royal Navy in Polar Exploration, Franklin to Scott'', E C Coleman 2006
★ ''British polar exploration and research : a historical and medallic record with biographies, 1818-1999 '', Neville W. Poulsom & J. A. L. Myres (London: Savannah 2000)
★ ''Franklin Saga Deaths: A Mystery Solved?'' National Geographic Magazine, Vol 178, No 3, Sep 1990
★ ''The Arctic Fox - Francis Leopold McClintock, Discoverer of the fate of Franklin'', David Murray, 2004. Cork: The Collins Press, ISBN 1-55002-523-6
★ ''To the Arctic!: The Story of Northern Exploration from Earliest Times'', Jeannette Mirsky, 1970 ISBN 0-226-53179-1
★ ''Fatal Passage'',
Ken McGoogan
★ ''Lady Franklin's Revenge'',
Ken McGoogan
Fictional
★ ''
The Discovery of Slowness'',
Sten Nadolny, Novel, 1983.
★ ''
The Rifles (novel)'',
William T. Vollmann, Novel, 1994.
★ ''The Terror'',
Dan Simmons, Horror novel, 2007.
★ ''The Broken Lands'',
Robert Edric, Novel, 1992
★ ''The Ice Child'',
Elizabeth McGregor, Dutton, May 3, 2001
★ ''Journeys and Adventures of Captain Hatteras'', Jules Vernes,
Novel (in French), 1864.
External links
★
NOVA's companion website for Arctic Passage
★
Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online''
★
The Fate of Franklin (Russell Potter)
★
The Life and Times of Sir John Franklin
★
List of artifacts recovered from the Franklin Expedition
★
Paper from the Universary of Calgary about the discovery of skeletal remains in 1992
★
Further reading
★ Alexander, Alison (editor) (2005)''The
Companion to Tasmanian History''Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies, University of Tasmania, Hobart. ISBN 186295223X.
★ Robson, L.L. (1983) ''A history of Tasmania. Volume 1. Van Diemen's Land from the earliest times to 1855''Melbourne, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195543645
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