KITSUNE
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:''This article is about Japanese folklore. For the record label, see Kitsuné Music.''
( is the Japanese word for fox. Foxes are a common subject of Japanese folklore. Stories depict them as intelligent beings and as possessing magical abilities that increase with their age and wisdom. Foremost among these is the ability to assume human form. While some folktales speak of kitsune employing this ability to trick others — as foxes in folklore often do — others portray them as faithful guardians, friends, lovers, and wives.
Foxes and human beings lived in close proximity in ancient Japan; this companionship gave rise to legends about the creatures. Kitsune have become closely associated with Inari, a Shinto ''kami'' or spirit, and serve as his messengers. This role has reinforced the fox's supernatural significance. The more tails a kitsune has — they may have as many as nine — the older, wiser, and more powerful it is. Because of their potential power and influence, some people make offerings to them as to a deity.
There is debate whether the kitsune myths originated entirely from foreign sources or are in part an indigenous Japanese concept dating as far back as the fifth century BC. It is widely agreed that at least some fox myths in Japan can be traced to China, Korea, or India. Many of the earliest surviving stories are recorded in the ''Konjaku Monogatari'', an 11th-century collection of Chinese, Indian, and Japanese narratives.[1] Chinese folk tales tell of kitsune-like ''fox spirits'' that may have up to nine tails. In Korea, a ''kumiho'' (''nine-tail fox'') is a mythical creature that has lived for 1,000 years. Differences exist; for instance the ''kumiho'' is always depicted as evil, unlike its Japanese counterpart. Nevertheless, scholars such as Ugo A. Casal suggest that the similarities show that fox myths spread from Indian sources such as the ''Hitopadesha'' to China and Korea, and ultimately to Japan.[2]
In contrast, Japanese folklorist Kiyoshi Nozaki argues that the Japanese regarded kitsune positively as early as the 4th century A.D.; the only things imported from China or Korea were the kitsune's negative attributes.[3] He states that, according to a 16th-century book of records called the ''Nihon Ryakki'', foxes and human beings lived in close proximity in ancient Japan, and he contends that indigenous legends about the creatures arose as a result.[4] Inari scholar Karen Smyers notes that the idea of the fox as seductress and the connection of the fox myths to Buddhism were introduced into Japanese folklore through similar Chinese stories, but she maintains that some fox stories contain elements unique to Japan.[5]
The full etymology is unknown. The oldest known usage of the word is in the 794 text . Other old sources include Nihon RyÅiki (810–824) and WamyÅ RuijushÅ (c. 934). These oldest sources are written in Man'yÅgana which clearly identifies the historical spelling as ''ki1tune''. Following several diachronic phonological changes, this becomes ''kitsune''.
Many etymological suggestions have been made; however, there is no general agreement.
★ MyÅgoki (1268) suggests that it is so called because it is "always (''tsune'') yellow (''ki'')".
★ Early Kamakura period Mizukagami indicates that it means "came (''ki'') [perfective case particle ''tsu''] to bedroom (''ne'')" due to a legend that a kitsune would change into one's wife and bear children.
★ Arai Hakuseki in TÅga (1717) suggests that ''ki'' means "stench", ''tsu'' is a possessive particle, and ''ne'' is related to ''inu'', the word for "dog".
★ Tanikawa Kotosuga in Wakun no Shiori (1777–1887) suggests that ''ki'' means "yellow", ''tsu'' is a possessive particle, and ''ne'' is related to ''neko'', the word for cat.
★ ÅŒtsuki Fumihiko in Daigenkai (1932–1935) proposes that ''kitsu'' is an onomatopoeia for the animal, and that ''ne'' is an affix or an honorific word meaning a servant of an Inari shrine.
According to Nozaki, the word ''kitsune'' was originally onomatopoeia. ''Kitsu'' represented a fox's yelp and came to be the general word for ''fox''. ''-Ne'' signifies an affectionate mood, which Nozaki presents as further evidence of an established, non-imported tradition of benevolent foxes in Japanese folklore. ''Kitsu'' is now archaic; in modern Japanese, a fox's cry is transcribed as ''kon kon'' or ''gon gon''.
One of the oldest surviving kitsune tales provides a widely known folk etymology of the word ''kitsune''; the story is now known to be false.[6] Unlike most tales of kitsune who become human and marry human males, this one does not end tragically:[7][8]
Because the fox returns to her husband each night as a woman but leaves each morning as a fox, she is called Kitsune. In classical Japanese, ''kitsu-ne'' means ''come and sleep'', and ''ki-tsune'' means ''always comes''.
Kitsune are believed to possess superior intelligence, long life, and magical powers. They are a type of ''yÅkai'', or spiritual entity, and the word ''kitsune'' is often translated as ''fox spirit''. However, this does not mean that kitsune are ghosts, nor that they are fundamentally different from regular foxes. Because the word ''spirit'' is used to reflect a state of knowledge or enlightenment, all long-lived foxes gain supernatural abilities.
There are two common classifications of kitsune. The ''myÅbu'' are benevolent, celestial foxes associated with Inari; they are sometimes simply called ''Inari foxes''. On the other hand, the wild ''nogitsune'' (literally, ''field foxes'') tend to be mischievous or even malicious.[9] Local traditions add further types. For example, a ''ninko'' is an invisible fox spirit that human beings can only perceive when it possesses them. Another tradition classifies kitsune into one of thirteen types defined by which supernatural abilities the kitsune possesses.[10][11]
Physically, kitsune are noted for having as many as nine tails.[12] Generally, a greater number of tails indicates an older and more powerful fox; in fact, some folktales say that a fox will only grow additional tails after it has lived 1,000 years. One, five, seven, and nine tails are the most common numbers in folk stories.[13] When a kitsune gains its ninth tail, its fur becomes white or gold. These ''kyūbi no kitsune'' (''nine-tailed foxes'') gain the abilities to see and hear anything happening anywhere in the world. Other tales attribute them infinite wisdom (omniscience).[14]
A kitsune may take on human form, an ability learned when it reaches a certain age — usually 100 years, although some tales say 50.[15] As a common prerequisite for the transformation, the fox must place reeds, a broad leaf, or a skull over its head.[16] Common forms assumed by kitsune include beautiful women, young girls, or elderly men. These shapes are not limited by the fox's age or gender, and a kitsune can duplicate the appearance of a specific person.[17] Foxes are particularly renowned for impersonating beautiful women. Common belief in medieval Japan was that any woman encountered alone, especially at dusk or night, could be a fox.[18]
In some stories, kitsune have difficulty hiding their tails when they take human form; looking for the tail, perhaps when the fox gets drunk or careless, is a common method of discerning the creature's true nature.[19] Variants on the theme have the kitsune retain other foxlike traits, such as a coating of fine hair, a fox-shaped shadow, or a reflection that shows its true form.[20] ''Kitsune-gao'' or ''fox-faced'' refers to human females who have a narrow face with close-set eyes, thin eyebrows, and high cheekbones. Traditionally, this facial structure is considered attractive, and some tales ascribe it to foxes in human form.[21] Kitsune have a fear and hatred of dogs even while in human form, and some become so rattled by the presence of dogs that they revert to the shape of a fox and flee. A particularly devout individual may be able to see through a fox's disguise automatically.[22]
One folk story illustrating these imperfections in the kitsune's human shape concerns Koan, a historical person credited with wisdom and magical powers of divination. According to the story, he was staying at the home of one of his devotees when he scalded his foot entering a bath because the water had been drawn too hot. Then, "in his pain, he ran out of the bathroom naked. When the people of the household saw him, they were astonished to see that Koan had fur covering much of his body, along with a fox's tail. Then Koan transformed in front of them, becoming an elderly fox and running away."[23]
Other supernatural abilities commonly attributed to the kitsune include possession, mouths or tails that generate fire or lightning (known as ''kitsune-bi''; literally, ''fox-fire''), willful manifestation in the dreams of others, flight, invisibility, and the creation of illusions so elaborate as to be almost indistinguishable from reality. Some tales speak of kitsune with even greater powers, able to bend time and space, drive people mad, or take fantastic shapes such as a tree of incredible height or a second moon in the sky.[24][25] Other kitsune have characteristics reminiscent of vampires or succubi and feed on the life or spirit of human beings, generally through sexual contact.[26]
''Kitsunetsuki'' (ç‹æ†‘ã or ç‹ä»˜ã; also written ''kitsune-tsuki'') literally means ''the state of being possessed by a fox''. The victim is typically a young woman, whom the fox enters beneath her fingernails or through her breasts.[27] In some cases, the victims' facial expressions are said to change in such a way that they resemble those of a fox. Japanese tradition holds that fox possession can cause illiterate victims to temporarily gain the ability to read.[28]
Folklorist Lafcadio Hearn describes the condition in the first volume of his ''Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan'':
He goes on to note that, once freed from the possession, the victim will never again be able to eat tofu, ''azukimeshi'', or other foods favored by foxes.
Exorcism, often performed at an Inari shrine, may induce a fox to leave its host.[30] In the past, when such gentle measures failed or a priest was not available, victims of ''kitsunetsuki'' were beaten or badly burned in hopes of forcing the fox to leave. Entire families were ostracized by their communities after a member of the family was thought to be possessed.
In Japan, ''kitsunetsuki'' was noted as a disease as early as the Heian period and remained a common diagnosis for mental illness until the early 20th century.[31][32] Possession was the explanation for the abnormal behavior displayed by the afflicted individuals. In the late 19th century, Dr. Shunichi Shimamura noted that physical diseases that caused fever were often considered ''kitsunetsuki''.[33] The belief has lost favor, but stories of fox possession still appear in the tabloid press and popular media. One notable occasion involved allegations that members of the Aum Shinrikyo cult had been possessed.[34]
In medicine, ''kitsunetsuki'' is an ethnic psychosis unique to Japanese culture. Those who suffer from the condition believe they are possessed by a fox.[35] Symptoms include cravings for rice or sweet red beans, listlessness, restlessness, and aversion to eye contact. ''Kitsunetsuki'' is similar to but distinct from clinical lycanthropy.[36]
Depictions of kitsune or their possessed victims may feature round or onion-shaped white balls known as ''hoshi no tama'' (''star balls''). Tales describe these as glowing with ''kitsune-bi'', or fox-fire.[37] Some stories identify them as magical jewels or pearls.[38] When not in human form or possessing a human, a kitsune keeps the ball in its mouth or carries it on its tail. Jewels are a common symbol of Inari, and representations of sacred Inari foxes without them are rare.[39]
One belief is that when a ''kitsune'' changes shape, its ''hoshi no tama'' holds a portion of its magical power. Another tradition is that the pearl represents the kitsune's soul; the kitsune will die if separated from it for long. Those who obtain the ball may be able to extract a promise from the ''kitsune'' to help them in exchange for its return.[40] For example, a 12th-century tale describes a man using a fox's ''hoshi no tama'' to secure a favor:
The fox later saves his life by leading him past a band of armed bandits.[41]
Kitsune are associated with Inari, the Shinto deity of rice.[42] This association has reinforced the fox's supernatural significance.[43] Originally, kitsune were Inari's messengers, but the line between the two is now blurred so that Inari himself may be depicted as a fox. Likewise, entire shrines are dedicated to kitsune, where devotees can leave offerings. Fox spirits are particularly fond of a fried sliced tofu called ''aburage'', which is accordingly found in kitsune udon and kitsune soba. Similarly, ''Inari-zushi'' is a type of sushi named for Inari that consists of rice-filled pouches of fried tofu.[44] There is speculation among folklorists as to whether another Shinto fox deity existed in the past. Foxes have long been worshipped as ''kami''.[45]
Inari's kitsune are white, a color of good omen. They possess the power to ward off evil, and they sometimes serve as guardian spirits. In addition to protecting Inari shrines, they are petitioned to intervene on behalf of the locals and particularly to aid against troublesome ''nogitsune''. Black foxes and nine-tailed foxes are likewise considered good omens.
According to beliefs derived from ''fusui'' (''feng shui''), the fox's power over evil is such that a mere statue of a fox can dispel the evil ''kimon'', or energy, that flows from the northeast. Many Inari shrines, such as the famous Fushimi Inari shrine in Kyoto, feature such statues, sometimes large numbers of them.
Kitsune are connected to the Buddhist religion through the Dakiniten, goddesses conflated with Inari's female aspect. Dakiniten is depicted as a female boddhisattva wielding a sword and riding a flying white fox.[46]
Kitsune are often presented as tricksters, with motives that vary from mischief to malevolence. Stories tell of kitsune playing tricks on overly proud samurai, greedy merchants, and boastful commoners, while the crueler ones abuse poor tradesmen and farmers or devout Buddhist monks. Their victims are usually men; women are possessed instead. For example, kitsune are thought to employ their ''kitsune-bi'' or fox-fire to lead travelers astray in the manner of a will o' the wisp.[47][48] Another tactic is for the kitsune to confuse its target with illusions or visions. Other common goals of trickster kitsune include seduction, theft of food, humiliation of the prideful, or vengeance for a perceived slight.
A traditional game called ''kitsune-ken'' (''fox-fist'') references the kitsune's powers over human beings. The game is similar to rock, paper, scissors, but the three hand positions signify a fox, a hunter, and a village headman. The headman beats the hunter, whom he outranks; the hunter beats the fox, whom he shoots; the fox beats the headman, whom he bewitches.[49][50]
This ambiguous portrayal, coupled with their reputation for vengefulness, leads people to try to discover a troublesome fox's motives. In one case, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a high government official, wrote a letter to the ''kami'' Inari:
Kitsune keep their promises and strive to repay any favor. Occasionally a kitsune attaches itself to a person or household, where they can cause all sorts of mischief. In one story from the 12th century, only the homeowner's threat to exterminate the foxes convinces them to behave. The kitsune patriarch appears in the man's dreams:
Other kitsune use their magic for the benefit of their companion or hosts as long as the human beings treat them with respect. As ''yÅkai'', however, kitsune do not share human morality, and a kitsune who has adopted a house in this manner may, for example, bring its host money or items that it has stolen from the neighbors. Accordingly, common households thought to harbor kitsune are treated with suspicion.[53] Oddly, samurai families were often reputed to share similar arrangements with kitsune, but these foxes were considered ''myÅbu'' and the use of their magic a sign of prestige.[54] Abandoned homes were common haunts for kitsune. One 12th-century story tells of a minister moving into an old mansion only to discover a family of foxes living there. They first try to scare him away, then claim that the house "has been ours for many years, and . . . we wish to register a vigorous protest." The man refuses, and the foxes resign themselves to moving to an abandoned lot nearby.[55]
Tales distinguish kitsune gifts from kitsune payments. If a kitsune offers a payment or reward that includes money or material wealth, part or all of the sum will consist of old paper, leaves, twigs, stones, or similar valueless items under a magical illusion.[56][57] True kitsune gifts are usually intangibles, such as protection, knowledge, or long life.
Kitsune are commonly portrayed as lovers, usually in stories involving a young human male and a kitsune who takes the form of a human woman.[58] The kitsune may be a seductress, but these stories are more often romantic in nature.[59] Typically, the young man unknowingly marries the fox, who proves a devoted wife. The man eventually discovers the fox's true nature, and the fox-wife is forced to leave him. In some cases, the husband wakes as if from a dream, filthy, disoriented, and far from home. He must then return to confront his abandoned family in shame.
Many stories tell of fox-wives bearing children. When such progeny are human, they possess special physical or supernatural qualities that often pass to their own children. The astrologer-magician Abe no Seimei was reputed to have inherited such extraordinary powers.[60]
Other stories tell of kitsune marrying one another. Rain falling from a clear sky — a sunshower — is sometimes called ''kitsune no yomeiri'' or ''the kitsune's wedding'', in reference to a folktale describing a wedding ceremony between the creatures being held during such conditions.[61] The event is considered a good omen, but the kitsune will seek revenge on any uninvited guests.[62]
Embedded in Japanese folklore as they are, kitsune appear in numerous Japanese works. Noh, kyogen, bunraku, and kabuki plays derived from folk tales feature them,[63][64] as do contemporary works such as manga and video games. Western authors of fiction have begun to make use of the kitsune legends. Although these portrayals vary considerably, kitsune are generally depicted in accordance with folk stories, as wise, cunning, and powerful beings.
Kuzunoha, mother of Abe no Seimei, is a well-known kitsune character in traditional Japanese theater. She is featured in the five-part bunraku and kabuki play ''Ashiya DÅman ÅŒuchi Kagami'' (''The Mirror of Ashiya DÅman and ÅŒuchi''). The fourth part, ''Kuzunoha'' or ''The Fox of Shinoda Wood'', is often performed independently of the other scenes and tells of the discovery of Kuzunoha's kitsune nature and her subsequent departure from her husband and child.[65][66]
Tamamo-no-Mae is the subject of the noh drama ''Sesshoseki'' (''The Death Stone'') and of kabuki and kyogen plays titled ''Tamamonomae'' (''The Beautiful Fox Witch''). Tamamo-no-Mae commits evil deeds in India, China, and Japan but is discovered and dies. Her spirit transforms into the "killing stone" of the noh play's title. She is eventually redeemed by the Buddhist priest GennÅ.[67][68][69]
GenkurÅ is a kitsune renowned for his filial piety. In the bunraku and kabuki drama ''Yoshitsune Sembon Zakura'' (''Yoshitsune and the Thousand Cherry Trees''), Yoshitsune's lover, Lady Shizuka, owns a hand-drum made from the skins of Genkuro's parents. The fox takes human form and becomes his retainer, SatÅ Tadanobu, but his identity is revealed. The kitsune explains that he hears the voice of his parents when the drum is struck. Yoshitsune and Shizuka give him the drum, so Genkuro grants Yoshitsune magical protection.[70][60][72]
Kitsune are frequently depicted in ''netsuke'', small carved objects originally intended to fasten a pouch to the sash of a garment. ''Netsuke'' have become a form of art known for their depiction of folklore and noh characters.
In the Japanese media franchise Pokemon, the fictional species Vulpix and Ninetales are based off of the kitsune.
1. Goff, Janet. "Foxes in Japanese culture: beautiful or beastly?" ''Japan Quarterly'' 44:2 (April-June 1997).
2. Johnson, T.W. "Far Eastern Fox Lore". ''Asian Folklore Studies'' 33:1 (1974) 35–68
3. Nozaki, Kiyoshi. ''Kitsune — Japan's Fox of Mystery, Romance, and Humor''. Tokyo: The Hokuseidô Press, 1961. 5
4. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 3
5. Smyers, Karen Ann. ''The Fox and the Jewel: Shared and Private Meanings in Contemporary Japanese Inari Worship''. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1999. 127–128
6. Hamel, Frank. ''Human Animals: Werewolves & Other Transformations''. New Hyde Park, N.Y.: University Books, 1969. 89
7. Goff. "Foxes". ''Japan Quarterly'' 44:2
8. Smyers. ''The Fox and the Jewel''. 72
9. Hearn, Lafcadio. ''Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan''. Project Gutenberg e-text edition, 2005. 154
10. Hall, Jamie. ''Half Human, Half Animal: Tales of Werewolves and Related Creatures''. Bloomington, Indiana: Authorhouse, 2003. 139
11. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 211–212
12. Smyers. ''The Fox and the Jewel''. 129
13. Kitsune, Kumiho, Huli Jing, Fox
14. Hearn. ''Glimpses''. 159
15. Hamel. ''Human Animals''. 91
16. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 25–26
17. Hall. ''Half Human''. 145
18. Tyler xlix.
19. Ashkenazy, Michael. ''Handbook of Japanese Mythology''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio, 2003. 148
20. Hearn. ''Glimpses''. 155
21. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 95, 206
22. Heine, Steven. ''Shifting Shape, Shaping Text: Philosophy and Folklore in the Fox Koan''. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1999. 153
23. Hall. ''Half Human''. 144
24. Hearn. ''Glimpses''. 156–157
25. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 36–37
26. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 26, 221
27. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 59
28. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 216
29. Hearn. ''Glimpses''. 158
30. Smyers. ''The Fox and the Jewel''. 90
31. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 211
32. Hearn. ''Glimpses''. 165
33. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 214–215
34. Downey, Jean Miyake. "Ten Thousand Things." ''Kyoto Journal'' 63. Retrieved on December 13 2006.
35. Haviland, William A. ''Cultural Anthropology'', 10th ed. New York: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 2002. 144–145
36. Yonebayashi, T. "Kitsunetsuki (Possession by Foxes)". ''Transcultural Psychiatry'' 1:2 (1964). 95–97
37. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 183
38. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 169–170
39. Smyers. ''The Fox and the Jewel''. 112–114
40. Hall. ''Half Human''. 149
41. Tyler 299–300.
42. Smyers. ''The Fox and the Jewel''. 76
43. Hearn. ''Glimpses''. 153
44. Smyers. ''The Fox and the Jewel''. 96
45. Smyers. ''The Fox and the Jewel''. 77, 81
46. Smyers. ''The Fox and the Jewel''. 82–85
47. Addiss, Stephen. ''Japanese Ghosts & Demons: Art of the Supernatural''. New York: G. Braziller, 1985. 137
48. Hall. ''Half Human''. 142
49. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 230
50. Smyers. ''The Fox and the Jewel''. 98
51. Hall. ''Half Human''. 137
52. Tyler 114–5.
53. Hearn. ''Glimpses''. 159–161
54. Hall. ''Half Human''. 148
55. Tyler 122–4.
56. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 195
57. Smyers. ''The Fox and the Jewel''. 103–105
58. Hamel. ''Human Animals''. 90
59. Hearn. ''Glimpses''. 157
60. Ashkenazy. ''Handbook''. 150
61. Addiss. ''Ghosts & Demons''. 132
62. Vaux, Bert. "Sunshower summary". ''LINGUIST List'' 9.1795 (Dec. 1998). A compilation of terms for sun showers from various cultures and languages. Retrieved on December 13 2006.
63. Hearn. ''Glimpses''. 162–163
64. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 109–124
65. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 110–111
66. Ashiya DÅman ÅŒuchi Kagami
67. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 112–113, 122–123
68. Noh synopsis: Sesshoseki
69. Tamamonomae Pantomime
70. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 114–116
71. Ashkenazy. ''Handbook''. 150
72. Yoshinoyama: Yoshitsune Sembon Zakura
★ Addiss, Stephen. ''Japanese Ghosts & Demons: Art of the Supernatural''. New York: G. Braziller, 1985. (pp. 132–137) ISBN 0-8076-1126-3
★ Ashkenazy, Michael. ''Handbook of Japanese Mythology''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio, 2003. ISBN 1-57607-467-6
★ Bathgate, Michael. ''The Fox's Craft in Japanese Religion and Folklore: Shapeshifters, Transformations, and Duplicities''. New York: Routledge, 2004. ISBN 0-415-96821-6
★ Hall, Jamie. ''Half Human, Half Animal: Tales of Werewolves and Related Creatures''. Bloomington, Indiana: Authorhouse, 2003. (pp. 121–152) ISBN 1-4107-5809-5
★ Hamel, Frank. ''Human Animals: Werewolves & Other Transformations''. New Hyde Park, N.Y.: University Books, 1969. (pp. 88–102) ISBN 0-7661-6700-3
★ Hearn, Lafcadio. ''Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan''. Project Gutenberg e-text edition, 2005. Retrieved on November 20, 2006.
★ Heine, Steven. ''Shifting Shape, Shaping Text: Philosophy and Folklore in the Fox Koan''. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8248-2150-5
★ Johnson, T.W. "Far Eastern Fox Lore". ''Asian Folklore Studies'' 33:1 (1974)
★ Nozaki, Kiyoshi. ''Kitsuné — Japan's Fox of Mystery, Romance, and Humor''. Tokyo: The Hokuseidô Press. 1961.
★ Oinari
★ Smyers, Karen Ann. ''The Fox and the Jewel: Shared and Private Meanings in Contemporary Japanese Inari Worship''. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8248-2102-5
★ Tyler, Royall (ed. and trans.) ''Japanese Tales''. New York: Pantheon Books, 1987. ISBN 0-394-75656-8
★ The Kitsune Page
★ Foxtrot's Guide to Kitsune Lore
★ Kitsune.org folklore
★ Kitsune, Kumiho, Huli Jing, Fox - Fox spirits in Asia, and Asian fox spirits in the West An extensive bibliography of fox-spirit books.
★ Portal of Transformation: Kitsune in Folklore and Mythology
★ IDEAS Undergraduate On-Line Journal
Prince Hanzoku terrorized by a nine-tailed fox. Print by Utagawa Kuniyoshi, 19th century.
( is the Japanese word for fox. Foxes are a common subject of Japanese folklore. Stories depict them as intelligent beings and as possessing magical abilities that increase with their age and wisdom. Foremost among these is the ability to assume human form. While some folktales speak of kitsune employing this ability to trick others — as foxes in folklore often do — others portray them as faithful guardians, friends, lovers, and wives.
Foxes and human beings lived in close proximity in ancient Japan; this companionship gave rise to legends about the creatures. Kitsune have become closely associated with Inari, a Shinto ''kami'' or spirit, and serve as his messengers. This role has reinforced the fox's supernatural significance. The more tails a kitsune has — they may have as many as nine — the older, wiser, and more powerful it is. Because of their potential power and influence, some people make offerings to them as to a deity.
| Contents |
| Origins |
| Etymology |
| Characteristics |
| ''Kitsunetsuki'' |
| ''Hoshi no tama'' |
| Portrayal |
| Servants of Inari |
| Tricksters |
| Wives and lovers |
| In fiction |
| In netsuke |
| Trivia |
| References |
| Other sources |
| External links |
Origins
A nine-tailed fox, from the Qing edition of the Shan Hai Jing. Fox spirits of Chinese folklore are similar to kitsune.
There is debate whether the kitsune myths originated entirely from foreign sources or are in part an indigenous Japanese concept dating as far back as the fifth century BC. It is widely agreed that at least some fox myths in Japan can be traced to China, Korea, or India. Many of the earliest surviving stories are recorded in the ''Konjaku Monogatari'', an 11th-century collection of Chinese, Indian, and Japanese narratives.[1] Chinese folk tales tell of kitsune-like ''fox spirits'' that may have up to nine tails. In Korea, a ''kumiho'' (''nine-tail fox'') is a mythical creature that has lived for 1,000 years. Differences exist; for instance the ''kumiho'' is always depicted as evil, unlike its Japanese counterpart. Nevertheless, scholars such as Ugo A. Casal suggest that the similarities show that fox myths spread from Indian sources such as the ''Hitopadesha'' to China and Korea, and ultimately to Japan.[2]
In contrast, Japanese folklorist Kiyoshi Nozaki argues that the Japanese regarded kitsune positively as early as the 4th century A.D.; the only things imported from China or Korea were the kitsune's negative attributes.[3] He states that, according to a 16th-century book of records called the ''Nihon Ryakki'', foxes and human beings lived in close proximity in ancient Japan, and he contends that indigenous legends about the creatures arose as a result.[4] Inari scholar Karen Smyers notes that the idea of the fox as seductress and the connection of the fox myths to Buddhism were introduced into Japanese folklore through similar Chinese stories, but she maintains that some fox stories contain elements unique to Japan.[5]
Japan is home to two red fox subspecies: the Hokkaido fox (''Vulpes vulpes schrencki'', pictured), and the Japanese red fox (''Vulpes vulpes japonica'').
Etymology
The full etymology is unknown. The oldest known usage of the word is in the 794 text . Other old sources include Nihon RyÅiki (810–824) and WamyÅ RuijushÅ (c. 934). These oldest sources are written in Man'yÅgana which clearly identifies the historical spelling as ''ki1tune''. Following several diachronic phonological changes, this becomes ''kitsune''.
Many etymological suggestions have been made; however, there is no general agreement.
★ MyÅgoki (1268) suggests that it is so called because it is "always (''tsune'') yellow (''ki'')".
★ Early Kamakura period Mizukagami indicates that it means "came (''ki'') [perfective case particle ''tsu''] to bedroom (''ne'')" due to a legend that a kitsune would change into one's wife and bear children.
★ Arai Hakuseki in TÅga (1717) suggests that ''ki'' means "stench", ''tsu'' is a possessive particle, and ''ne'' is related to ''inu'', the word for "dog".
★ Tanikawa Kotosuga in Wakun no Shiori (1777–1887) suggests that ''ki'' means "yellow", ''tsu'' is a possessive particle, and ''ne'' is related to ''neko'', the word for cat.
★ ÅŒtsuki Fumihiko in Daigenkai (1932–1935) proposes that ''kitsu'' is an onomatopoeia for the animal, and that ''ne'' is an affix or an honorific word meaning a servant of an Inari shrine.
According to Nozaki, the word ''kitsune'' was originally onomatopoeia. ''Kitsu'' represented a fox's yelp and came to be the general word for ''fox''. ''-Ne'' signifies an affectionate mood, which Nozaki presents as further evidence of an established, non-imported tradition of benevolent foxes in Japanese folklore. ''Kitsu'' is now archaic; in modern Japanese, a fox's cry is transcribed as ''kon kon'' or ''gon gon''.
One of the oldest surviving kitsune tales provides a widely known folk etymology of the word ''kitsune''; the story is now known to be false.[6] Unlike most tales of kitsune who become human and marry human males, this one does not end tragically:[7][8]
Ono, an inhabitant of Mino (says an ancient Japanese legend of A.D. 545), spent the seasons longing for his ideal of female beauty. He met her one evening on a vast moor and married her. Simultaneously with the birth of their son, Ono's dog was delivered of a pup which as it grew up became more and more hostile to the lady of the moors. She begged her husband to kill it, but he refused. At last one day the dog attacked her so furiously that she lost courage, resumed vulpine shape, leaped over a fence and fled.
"You may be a fox," Ono called after her, "but you are the mother of my son and I love you. Come back when you please; you will always be welcome."
Because the fox returns to her husband each night as a woman but leaves each morning as a fox, she is called Kitsune. In classical Japanese, ''kitsu-ne'' means ''come and sleep'', and ''ki-tsune'' means ''always comes''.
Characteristics
Kitsune are believed to possess superior intelligence, long life, and magical powers. They are a type of ''yÅkai'', or spiritual entity, and the word ''kitsune'' is often translated as ''fox spirit''. However, this does not mean that kitsune are ghosts, nor that they are fundamentally different from regular foxes. Because the word ''spirit'' is used to reflect a state of knowledge or enlightenment, all long-lived foxes gain supernatural abilities.
There are two common classifications of kitsune. The ''myÅbu'' are benevolent, celestial foxes associated with Inari; they are sometimes simply called ''Inari foxes''. On the other hand, the wild ''nogitsune'' (literally, ''field foxes'') tend to be mischievous or even malicious.[9] Local traditions add further types. For example, a ''ninko'' is an invisible fox spirit that human beings can only perceive when it possesses them. Another tradition classifies kitsune into one of thirteen types defined by which supernatural abilities the kitsune possesses.[10][11]
Physically, kitsune are noted for having as many as nine tails.[12] Generally, a greater number of tails indicates an older and more powerful fox; in fact, some folktales say that a fox will only grow additional tails after it has lived 1,000 years. One, five, seven, and nine tails are the most common numbers in folk stories.[13] When a kitsune gains its ninth tail, its fur becomes white or gold. These ''kyūbi no kitsune'' (''nine-tailed foxes'') gain the abilities to see and hear anything happening anywhere in the world. Other tales attribute them infinite wisdom (omniscience).[14]
This ''obake karuta'' (monster card) from the early 19th century depicts a kitsune. The associated game involves matching clues from folklore to pictures of specific creatures.
A kitsune may take on human form, an ability learned when it reaches a certain age — usually 100 years, although some tales say 50.[15] As a common prerequisite for the transformation, the fox must place reeds, a broad leaf, or a skull over its head.[16] Common forms assumed by kitsune include beautiful women, young girls, or elderly men. These shapes are not limited by the fox's age or gender, and a kitsune can duplicate the appearance of a specific person.[17] Foxes are particularly renowned for impersonating beautiful women. Common belief in medieval Japan was that any woman encountered alone, especially at dusk or night, could be a fox.[18]
In some stories, kitsune have difficulty hiding their tails when they take human form; looking for the tail, perhaps when the fox gets drunk or careless, is a common method of discerning the creature's true nature.[19] Variants on the theme have the kitsune retain other foxlike traits, such as a coating of fine hair, a fox-shaped shadow, or a reflection that shows its true form.[20] ''Kitsune-gao'' or ''fox-faced'' refers to human females who have a narrow face with close-set eyes, thin eyebrows, and high cheekbones. Traditionally, this facial structure is considered attractive, and some tales ascribe it to foxes in human form.[21] Kitsune have a fear and hatred of dogs even while in human form, and some become so rattled by the presence of dogs that they revert to the shape of a fox and flee. A particularly devout individual may be able to see through a fox's disguise automatically.[22]
One folk story illustrating these imperfections in the kitsune's human shape concerns Koan, a historical person credited with wisdom and magical powers of divination. According to the story, he was staying at the home of one of his devotees when he scalded his foot entering a bath because the water had been drawn too hot. Then, "in his pain, he ran out of the bathroom naked. When the people of the household saw him, they were astonished to see that Koan had fur covering much of his body, along with a fox's tail. Then Koan transformed in front of them, becoming an elderly fox and running away."[23]
Other supernatural abilities commonly attributed to the kitsune include possession, mouths or tails that generate fire or lightning (known as ''kitsune-bi''; literally, ''fox-fire''), willful manifestation in the dreams of others, flight, invisibility, and the creation of illusions so elaborate as to be almost indistinguishable from reality. Some tales speak of kitsune with even greater powers, able to bend time and space, drive people mad, or take fantastic shapes such as a tree of incredible height or a second moon in the sky.[24][25] Other kitsune have characteristics reminiscent of vampires or succubi and feed on the life or spirit of human beings, generally through sexual contact.[26]
Inari and her fox spirits help the blacksmith Munechika forge the blade ''ko-kitsune-maru'' (Little Fox) at the end of the 10th century. The legend is the subject of the noh drama ''Sanjo Kokaji''.
''Kitsunetsuki''
''Kitsunetsuki'' (ç‹æ†‘ã or ç‹ä»˜ã; also written ''kitsune-tsuki'') literally means ''the state of being possessed by a fox''. The victim is typically a young woman, whom the fox enters beneath her fingernails or through her breasts.[27] In some cases, the victims' facial expressions are said to change in such a way that they resemble those of a fox. Japanese tradition holds that fox possession can cause illiterate victims to temporarily gain the ability to read.[28]
Folklorist Lafcadio Hearn describes the condition in the first volume of his ''Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan'':
Strange is the madness of those into whom demon foxes enter. Sometimes they run naked shouting through the streets. Sometimes they lie down and froth at the mouth, and yelp as a fox yelps. And on some part of the body of the possessed a moving lump appears under the skin, which seems to have a life of its own. Prick it with a needle, and it glides instantly to another place. By no grasp can it be so tightly compressed by a strong hand that it will not slip from under the fingers. Possessed folk are also said to speak and write languages of which they were totally ignorant prior to possession. They eat only what foxes are believed to like — tofu, ''aburagé'', ''azukimeshi'', etc. — and they eat a great deal, alleging that not they, but the possessing foxes, are hungry.[29]
He goes on to note that, once freed from the possession, the victim will never again be able to eat tofu, ''azukimeshi'', or other foods favored by foxes.
Exorcism, often performed at an Inari shrine, may induce a fox to leave its host.[30] In the past, when such gentle measures failed or a priest was not available, victims of ''kitsunetsuki'' were beaten or badly burned in hopes of forcing the fox to leave. Entire families were ostracized by their communities after a member of the family was thought to be possessed.
In Japan, ''kitsunetsuki'' was noted as a disease as early as the Heian period and remained a common diagnosis for mental illness until the early 20th century.[31][32] Possession was the explanation for the abnormal behavior displayed by the afflicted individuals. In the late 19th century, Dr. Shunichi Shimamura noted that physical diseases that caused fever were often considered ''kitsunetsuki''.[33] The belief has lost favor, but stories of fox possession still appear in the tabloid press and popular media. One notable occasion involved allegations that members of the Aum Shinrikyo cult had been possessed.[34]
In medicine, ''kitsunetsuki'' is an ethnic psychosis unique to Japanese culture. Those who suffer from the condition believe they are possessed by a fox.[35] Symptoms include cravings for rice or sweet red beans, listlessness, restlessness, and aversion to eye contact. ''Kitsunetsuki'' is similar to but distinct from clinical lycanthropy.[36]
''Hoshi no tama''
Depictions of kitsune or their possessed victims may feature round or onion-shaped white balls known as ''hoshi no tama'' (''star balls''). Tales describe these as glowing with ''kitsune-bi'', or fox-fire.[37] Some stories identify them as magical jewels or pearls.[38] When not in human form or possessing a human, a kitsune keeps the ball in its mouth or carries it on its tail. Jewels are a common symbol of Inari, and representations of sacred Inari foxes without them are rare.[39]
One belief is that when a ''kitsune'' changes shape, its ''hoshi no tama'' holds a portion of its magical power. Another tradition is that the pearl represents the kitsune's soul; the kitsune will die if separated from it for long. Those who obtain the ball may be able to extract a promise from the ''kitsune'' to help them in exchange for its return.[40] For example, a 12th-century tale describes a man using a fox's ''hoshi no tama'' to secure a favor:
"Confound you!" snapped the fox. "Give me back my ball!" The man ignored its pleas till finally it said tearfully, "All right, you've got the ball, but you don't know how to keep it. It won't be any good to you. For me, it's a terrible loss. I tell you, if you don't give it back, I'll be your enemy forever. If you ''do'' give it back though, I'll stick to you like a protector god."
The fox later saves his life by leading him past a band of armed bandits.[41]
Portrayal
Inari appears to a warrior. This portrayal of Inari shows the influence of Dakiniten concepts from Buddhism. Print by Utagawa Kuniyoshi.
Servants of Inari
Kitsune are associated with Inari, the Shinto deity of rice.[42] This association has reinforced the fox's supernatural significance.[43] Originally, kitsune were Inari's messengers, but the line between the two is now blurred so that Inari himself may be depicted as a fox. Likewise, entire shrines are dedicated to kitsune, where devotees can leave offerings. Fox spirits are particularly fond of a fried sliced tofu called ''aburage'', which is accordingly found in kitsune udon and kitsune soba. Similarly, ''Inari-zushi'' is a type of sushi named for Inari that consists of rice-filled pouches of fried tofu.[44] There is speculation among folklorists as to whether another Shinto fox deity existed in the past. Foxes have long been worshipped as ''kami''.[45]
Inari's kitsune are white, a color of good omen. They possess the power to ward off evil, and they sometimes serve as guardian spirits. In addition to protecting Inari shrines, they are petitioned to intervene on behalf of the locals and particularly to aid against troublesome ''nogitsune''. Black foxes and nine-tailed foxes are likewise considered good omens.
According to beliefs derived from ''fusui'' (''feng shui''), the fox's power over evil is such that a mere statue of a fox can dispel the evil ''kimon'', or energy, that flows from the northeast. Many Inari shrines, such as the famous Fushimi Inari shrine in Kyoto, feature such statues, sometimes large numbers of them.
Kitsune are connected to the Buddhist religion through the Dakiniten, goddesses conflated with Inari's female aspect. Dakiniten is depicted as a female boddhisattva wielding a sword and riding a flying white fox.[46]
Tricksters
The Fushimi Inari shrine in Kyoto features numerous kitsune statues.
Kitsune are often presented as tricksters, with motives that vary from mischief to malevolence. Stories tell of kitsune playing tricks on overly proud samurai, greedy merchants, and boastful commoners, while the crueler ones abuse poor tradesmen and farmers or devout Buddhist monks. Their victims are usually men; women are possessed instead. For example, kitsune are thought to employ their ''kitsune-bi'' or fox-fire to lead travelers astray in the manner of a will o' the wisp.[47][48] Another tactic is for the kitsune to confuse its target with illusions or visions. Other common goals of trickster kitsune include seduction, theft of food, humiliation of the prideful, or vengeance for a perceived slight.
A traditional game called ''kitsune-ken'' (''fox-fist'') references the kitsune's powers over human beings. The game is similar to rock, paper, scissors, but the three hand positions signify a fox, a hunter, and a village headman. The headman beats the hunter, whom he outranks; the hunter beats the fox, whom he shoots; the fox beats the headman, whom he bewitches.[49][50]
This ambiguous portrayal, coupled with their reputation for vengefulness, leads people to try to discover a troublesome fox's motives. In one case, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a high government official, wrote a letter to the ''kami'' Inari:
To Inari Daimyojin,
My lord, I have the honor to inform you that one of the foxes under your jurisdiction has bewitched one of my servants, causing her and others a great deal of trouble. I have to request that you make minute inquiries into the matter, and endeavor to find out the reason of your subject misbehaving in this way, and let me know the result.
If it turns out that the fox has no adequate reason to give for his behavior, you are to arrest and punish him at once. If you hesitate to take action in this matter I shall issue orders for the destruction of every fox in the land. Any other particulars that you may wish to be informed of in reference to what has occurred, you can learn from the high priest of Yoshida.[51]
Kitsune keep their promises and strive to repay any favor. Occasionally a kitsune attaches itself to a person or household, where they can cause all sorts of mischief. In one story from the 12th century, only the homeowner's threat to exterminate the foxes convinces them to behave. The kitsune patriarch appears in the man's dreams:
"My father lived here before me, sir, and by now I have many children and grandchildren. They get into a lot of mischief, I'm afraid, and I'm always after them to stop, but they never listen. And now, sir, you're understandably fed up with us. I gather that you're going to kill us all. But I just want you to know, sir, how sorry I am that this is our last night of life. Won't you pardon us, one more time? If we ever make trouble again, then of course you must act as you think best. But the young ones, sir — I'm ''sure'' they'll understand when I explain to them why you're so upset. We'll do everything we can to protect you from now on, if only you'll forgive us, and we'll be sure to let you know when anything good is going to happen!"[52]
Other kitsune use their magic for the benefit of their companion or hosts as long as the human beings treat them with respect. As ''yÅkai'', however, kitsune do not share human morality, and a kitsune who has adopted a house in this manner may, for example, bring its host money or items that it has stolen from the neighbors. Accordingly, common households thought to harbor kitsune are treated with suspicion.[53] Oddly, samurai families were often reputed to share similar arrangements with kitsune, but these foxes were considered ''myÅbu'' and the use of their magic a sign of prestige.[54] Abandoned homes were common haunts for kitsune. One 12th-century story tells of a minister moving into an old mansion only to discover a family of foxes living there. They first try to scare him away, then claim that the house "has been ours for many years, and . . . we wish to register a vigorous protest." The man refuses, and the foxes resign themselves to moving to an abandoned lot nearby.[55]
Tales distinguish kitsune gifts from kitsune payments. If a kitsune offers a payment or reward that includes money or material wealth, part or all of the sum will consist of old paper, leaves, twigs, stones, or similar valueless items under a magical illusion.[56][57] True kitsune gifts are usually intangibles, such as protection, knowledge, or long life.
The kitsune Kuzunoha casts a fox's shadow even in human form. Kuzunoha is a popular figure in folklore and the subject of kabuki plays. Print by Utagawa Kuniyoshi.
Wives and lovers
Kitsune are commonly portrayed as lovers, usually in stories involving a young human male and a kitsune who takes the form of a human woman.[58] The kitsune may be a seductress, but these stories are more often romantic in nature.[59] Typically, the young man unknowingly marries the fox, who proves a devoted wife. The man eventually discovers the fox's true nature, and the fox-wife is forced to leave him. In some cases, the husband wakes as if from a dream, filthy, disoriented, and far from home. He must then return to confront his abandoned family in shame.
Many stories tell of fox-wives bearing children. When such progeny are human, they possess special physical or supernatural qualities that often pass to their own children. The astrologer-magician Abe no Seimei was reputed to have inherited such extraordinary powers.[60]
Other stories tell of kitsune marrying one another. Rain falling from a clear sky — a sunshower — is sometimes called ''kitsune no yomeiri'' or ''the kitsune's wedding'', in reference to a folktale describing a wedding ceremony between the creatures being held during such conditions.[61] The event is considered a good omen, but the kitsune will seek revenge on any uninvited guests.[62]
In fiction
Netsuke carving featuring a dancing kitsune.
Embedded in Japanese folklore as they are, kitsune appear in numerous Japanese works. Noh, kyogen, bunraku, and kabuki plays derived from folk tales feature them,[63][64] as do contemporary works such as manga and video games. Western authors of fiction have begun to make use of the kitsune legends. Although these portrayals vary considerably, kitsune are generally depicted in accordance with folk stories, as wise, cunning, and powerful beings.
Kuzunoha, mother of Abe no Seimei, is a well-known kitsune character in traditional Japanese theater. She is featured in the five-part bunraku and kabuki play ''Ashiya DÅman ÅŒuchi Kagami'' (''The Mirror of Ashiya DÅman and ÅŒuchi''). The fourth part, ''Kuzunoha'' or ''The Fox of Shinoda Wood'', is often performed independently of the other scenes and tells of the discovery of Kuzunoha's kitsune nature and her subsequent departure from her husband and child.[65][66]
Tamamo-no-Mae is the subject of the noh drama ''Sesshoseki'' (''The Death Stone'') and of kabuki and kyogen plays titled ''Tamamonomae'' (''The Beautiful Fox Witch''). Tamamo-no-Mae commits evil deeds in India, China, and Japan but is discovered and dies. Her spirit transforms into the "killing stone" of the noh play's title. She is eventually redeemed by the Buddhist priest GennÅ.[67][68][69]
GenkurÅ is a kitsune renowned for his filial piety. In the bunraku and kabuki drama ''Yoshitsune Sembon Zakura'' (''Yoshitsune and the Thousand Cherry Trees''), Yoshitsune's lover, Lady Shizuka, owns a hand-drum made from the skins of Genkuro's parents. The fox takes human form and becomes his retainer, SatÅ Tadanobu, but his identity is revealed. The kitsune explains that he hears the voice of his parents when the drum is struck. Yoshitsune and Shizuka give him the drum, so Genkuro grants Yoshitsune magical protection.[70][60][72]
In netsuke
Kitsune are frequently depicted in ''netsuke'', small carved objects originally intended to fasten a pouch to the sash of a garment. ''Netsuke'' have become a form of art known for their depiction of folklore and noh characters.
Trivia
In the Japanese media franchise Pokemon, the fictional species Vulpix and Ninetales are based off of the kitsune.
References
1. Goff, Janet. "Foxes in Japanese culture: beautiful or beastly?" ''Japan Quarterly'' 44:2 (April-June 1997).
2. Johnson, T.W. "Far Eastern Fox Lore". ''Asian Folklore Studies'' 33:1 (1974) 35–68
3. Nozaki, Kiyoshi. ''Kitsune — Japan's Fox of Mystery, Romance, and Humor''. Tokyo: The Hokuseidô Press, 1961. 5
4. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 3
5. Smyers, Karen Ann. ''The Fox and the Jewel: Shared and Private Meanings in Contemporary Japanese Inari Worship''. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1999. 127–128
6. Hamel, Frank. ''Human Animals: Werewolves & Other Transformations''. New Hyde Park, N.Y.: University Books, 1969. 89
7. Goff. "Foxes". ''Japan Quarterly'' 44:2
8. Smyers. ''The Fox and the Jewel''. 72
9. Hearn, Lafcadio. ''Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan''. Project Gutenberg e-text edition, 2005. 154
10. Hall, Jamie. ''Half Human, Half Animal: Tales of Werewolves and Related Creatures''. Bloomington, Indiana: Authorhouse, 2003. 139
11. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 211–212
12. Smyers. ''The Fox and the Jewel''. 129
13. Kitsune, Kumiho, Huli Jing, Fox
14. Hearn. ''Glimpses''. 159
15. Hamel. ''Human Animals''. 91
16. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 25–26
17. Hall. ''Half Human''. 145
18. Tyler xlix.
19. Ashkenazy, Michael. ''Handbook of Japanese Mythology''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio, 2003. 148
20. Hearn. ''Glimpses''. 155
21. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 95, 206
22. Heine, Steven. ''Shifting Shape, Shaping Text: Philosophy and Folklore in the Fox Koan''. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1999. 153
23. Hall. ''Half Human''. 144
24. Hearn. ''Glimpses''. 156–157
25. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 36–37
26. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 26, 221
27. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 59
28. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 216
29. Hearn. ''Glimpses''. 158
30. Smyers. ''The Fox and the Jewel''. 90
31. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 211
32. Hearn. ''Glimpses''. 165
33. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 214–215
34. Downey, Jean Miyake. "Ten Thousand Things." ''Kyoto Journal'' 63. Retrieved on December 13 2006.
35. Haviland, William A. ''Cultural Anthropology'', 10th ed. New York: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 2002. 144–145
36. Yonebayashi, T. "Kitsunetsuki (Possession by Foxes)". ''Transcultural Psychiatry'' 1:2 (1964). 95–97
37. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 183
38. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 169–170
39. Smyers. ''The Fox and the Jewel''. 112–114
40. Hall. ''Half Human''. 149
41. Tyler 299–300.
42. Smyers. ''The Fox and the Jewel''. 76
43. Hearn. ''Glimpses''. 153
44. Smyers. ''The Fox and the Jewel''. 96
45. Smyers. ''The Fox and the Jewel''. 77, 81
46. Smyers. ''The Fox and the Jewel''. 82–85
47. Addiss, Stephen. ''Japanese Ghosts & Demons: Art of the Supernatural''. New York: G. Braziller, 1985. 137
48. Hall. ''Half Human''. 142
49. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 230
50. Smyers. ''The Fox and the Jewel''. 98
51. Hall. ''Half Human''. 137
52. Tyler 114–5.
53. Hearn. ''Glimpses''. 159–161
54. Hall. ''Half Human''. 148
55. Tyler 122–4.
56. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 195
57. Smyers. ''The Fox and the Jewel''. 103–105
58. Hamel. ''Human Animals''. 90
59. Hearn. ''Glimpses''. 157
60. Ashkenazy. ''Handbook''. 150
61. Addiss. ''Ghosts & Demons''. 132
62. Vaux, Bert. "Sunshower summary". ''LINGUIST List'' 9.1795 (Dec. 1998). A compilation of terms for sun showers from various cultures and languages. Retrieved on December 13 2006.
63. Hearn. ''Glimpses''. 162–163
64. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 109–124
65. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 110–111
66. Ashiya DÅman ÅŒuchi Kagami
67. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 112–113, 122–123
68. Noh synopsis: Sesshoseki
69. Tamamonomae Pantomime
70. Nozaki. ''Kitsune''. 114–116
71. Ashkenazy. ''Handbook''. 150
72. Yoshinoyama: Yoshitsune Sembon Zakura
Other sources
★ Addiss, Stephen. ''Japanese Ghosts & Demons: Art of the Supernatural''. New York: G. Braziller, 1985. (pp. 132–137) ISBN 0-8076-1126-3
★ Ashkenazy, Michael. ''Handbook of Japanese Mythology''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio, 2003. ISBN 1-57607-467-6
★ Bathgate, Michael. ''The Fox's Craft in Japanese Religion and Folklore: Shapeshifters, Transformations, and Duplicities''. New York: Routledge, 2004. ISBN 0-415-96821-6
★ Hall, Jamie. ''Half Human, Half Animal: Tales of Werewolves and Related Creatures''. Bloomington, Indiana: Authorhouse, 2003. (pp. 121–152) ISBN 1-4107-5809-5
★ Hamel, Frank. ''Human Animals: Werewolves & Other Transformations''. New Hyde Park, N.Y.: University Books, 1969. (pp. 88–102) ISBN 0-7661-6700-3
★ Hearn, Lafcadio. ''Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan''. Project Gutenberg e-text edition, 2005. Retrieved on November 20, 2006.
★ Heine, Steven. ''Shifting Shape, Shaping Text: Philosophy and Folklore in the Fox Koan''. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8248-2150-5
★ Johnson, T.W. "Far Eastern Fox Lore". ''Asian Folklore Studies'' 33:1 (1974)
★ Nozaki, Kiyoshi. ''Kitsuné — Japan's Fox of Mystery, Romance, and Humor''. Tokyo: The Hokuseidô Press. 1961.
★ Oinari
★ Smyers, Karen Ann. ''The Fox and the Jewel: Shared and Private Meanings in Contemporary Japanese Inari Worship''. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8248-2102-5
★ Tyler, Royall (ed. and trans.) ''Japanese Tales''. New York: Pantheon Books, 1987. ISBN 0-394-75656-8
External links
★ The Kitsune Page
★ Foxtrot's Guide to Kitsune Lore
★ Kitsune.org folklore
★ Kitsune, Kumiho, Huli Jing, Fox - Fox spirits in Asia, and Asian fox spirits in the West An extensive bibliography of fox-spirit books.
★ Portal of Transformation: Kitsune in Folklore and Mythology
★ IDEAS Undergraduate On-Line Journal
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