(Redirected from Kurdish separatism)
'Kurdistan' (
Kurdish: 'Kurdistan'/'كوردستان', literally meaning "the land of
Kurds"
[1]; Ancient: ''Corduene'', old: ''Koordistan'', ''Curdistan'', ''Kurdia'' or ''Kurdiya'', also ) is the name of a geographic and
cultural region in the
Middle East, inhabited predominantly by the
Kurds.
As a traditional ethnographic region, Kurdistan is generally held to include the contiguous regions in northern and northeastern
Mesopotamia with large Kurdish populations. From a political standpoint,
Iraqi Kurdistan is the only region which has gained official recognition internationally as a federal entity.
[2]
History
Main articles: History of the Kurds
Ancient period
Much of Kurdistan corresponds roughly with the ancient Kingdom of
Gutium, which is mentioned in
cuneiform records about 2400 BC, and had its capital at Arraphkha (modern
Kirkuk).
[3]
The tract to this day known as Kurdistan, the high mountain region south and south-east of
Lake Van between Persia and Mesopotamia, was in the possession of
Kurds from before the time of
Xenophon, and was known as the country of the ''Carduchi'' (), as ''Cardyene''or ''Cordyene''.
[4]
Kingdom of Corduene, circa
60 BC
At their peak, the
Romans ruled large Kurdish-inhabited areas, particularly the western and northern Kurdish areas in the Middle East. Kingdoms like
Corduene were vassal states of the Roman Empire. From
189 BC to AD
384, the ancient kingdom of
Corduene ruled northern Mesopotamia. It was situated to the east of
Tigranocerta (i.e., to the east and south of present-day
Diyarbakır in south-eastern Turkey). It became a
vassal state of the
Roman Republic in
66 BC. It remained allied with the Romans until AD
384.
Some of the ancient districts of Kurdistan and their corresponding modern names are listed below
[5].
#
Corduene or Gordyene (
Siirt,
Bitlis and
Şırnak)
#
Sophene (
Diyarbakır)
#Zabdicene or Bezabde (''Gozarto d'Qardu'' or ''Jazirat Ibn'' or
Cizre)
#Basenia (
Bayazid)
#Moxoene (
Muş)
#Nephercerta (''Miyafarkin'')
#Artemita (
Van)
One of the earliest records of the phrase ''land of the Kurds'' is found in a
Syriac Christian document of
late antiquity describing the stories of Christian saints of Middle East such as the holy
Abdisho. When the
Sassanid Marzban asked Mar Abdisho about his place of origin, he replied that according to his parents, they were originally from ''Hazza'', a village in
Assyria. However they were later driven out of Hazza by
pagans, and settled in ''Tamanon'', which according to holy Abdisho was in the ''land of the Kurds''. This village lies just north of the modern
Iraqi-
Turkey border. Also Hazza is located 12 km southwest of modern
Irbil. In another passage in the same document, the region of
Khabur is also identified as ''land of the Kurds''.
[6].
Medieval period
Mediterranean and European lands, about 1097
In the second half of the
10th century, Kurdistan was shared amongst five big Kurdish principalities. In the North the
Shaddadid (
951–
1174) (in parts of
Armenia and
Arran) and the
Rawadid (
955–
1221) (in
Tabriz and
Maragheh), in the East the
Hasanwayhid (
959–
1015) and the
Annazid (
990–
1116) (in
Hulwan,
Kermanshah and
Khanaqin) and in the West the
Marwanid (
990–
1096) of
Diyarbakır.
Kurdistan in the
Middle Ages was a collection of semi-independent states called "
emirates". A comprehensive history of these states and their relationship with their neighbors is given in the famous textbook of "Sharafnama" written by Prince
Sharaf al-Din Bitlisi in
1597.
[7][8] The most famous Kurdish Emirates included
Baban,
Soran,
Badinan and
Garmiyan in present-day
Iraq; Bakran, Botan (or ''Bokhtan'') and
Badlis in
Turkey, and Mukriyan and
Ardalan in
Iran.
However,
Ottoman Empire captured these provinces from
Safavids in
23 August 1514 and gained control over the south eastern
Anatolia.
Modern period
Main articles: Kurdistan Okrug
In the
16th century, the Kurdish-inhabited areas were split between
Safavid Iran and the
Ottoman Empire after prolonged wars. The first important division of Kurdistan occurred in the aftermath of the
Battle of Chaldiran in
1514. This division was formalized in the
Treaty of Zuhab in
1639[9]. Before
World War I, most Kurds lived within the boundaries of the
Ottoman Empire in the
province of Kurdistan. After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the
Allies agreed and planned to create several countries within its former boundaries. Originally Kurdistan, along with
Armenia, was to be one of them, according to the never-ratified
Treaty of Sèvres. However, the reconquest of these areas by
Kemal Atatürk and other pressing issues caused the Allies to accept the renegotiated
Treaty of Lausanne, accepting the border of modern
Republic of Turkey and leaving the Kurds without a self-ruled region. Other Kurdish areas were assigned to the new British and French
mandated states of
Iraq and
Syria under both treaties.
The Kurdish delegation made a proposal at the
San Francisco Peace Conference in
1945, showing the geographical extent of Kurdistan as claimed by the Kurds. This proposal encompasses an area extending from the
Mediterranean shores near
Adana to the shores of
Persian Gulf near
Bushehr, and it includes the
Lur inhabited areas of southern
Zagros[10][11].
Since World War I, Kurdistan has been divided between several states, in all of which Kurds are minorities. At the end of the
First Gulf War, Allies established the safe haven in northern Iraq. Amid the withdrawal of Iraqi forces from three northern provinces, Iraqi Kurdistan emerged as an autonomous entity inside Iraq, with its own local government and parliament in
1992.
People
In addition to Kurds who comprise the majority of the population of the region there are also communities of
Arab,
Armenian,
Assyrian,
Azeri,
Jewish,
Ossetian,
Persian, and
Turkic people traditionally scattered throughout the region alongside Kurds. Most of its inhabitants being Muslim there are also significant numbers of various other religious sects such as
Yazidi,
Zoroastrian,
Yarsan,
Alevi,
Christian,
Jewish,
Sarayi,
Bajwan and
Haqqa etc.
Geography
According to ''
Encyclopædia Britannica'', Kurdistan covers about 190,000 km², and its chief towns are
Diyarbakır, Bitlis, and
Van in Turkey,
Mosul ,
Arbil and
Kirkuk in Iraq, and
Kermanshah,
Sanandaj and
Mahabad in
Iran.
[12] According to the
Encyclopaedia of Islam, Kurdistan covers around
190,000 km² in Turkey, 125,000 km² in Iran, 65,000 km² in Iraq, and
12,000 km² in Syria and the total area of Kurdistan is estimated at approximately 392,000 km²
[13]. Others estimate as many as 40 million Kurds live in Kurdistan, which covers an area as big as
France. The
Kurdistan Province in Iran and
Iraqi Kurdistan are both included in the usual definition of Kurdistan.
Historic map from
1721, showing borders of Curdistan provinces
encompasses
Kurdistan Province and greater parts of
West Azarbaijan,
Kermanshah,
Īlām provinces.
Iraqi Kurdistan is divided into six
governorates, three of which — and parts of others — are under the control of
Kurdistan Regional Government.
Syrian Kurdistan is mostly located in present-day northeastern
Syria. This region covers the greater part of the province of
Al Hasakah. The main cities in this region are
Al-Qamishli () and
Al Hasakah (). Another region with a significant Kurdish population is in the northern part of Syria. The Kurdish-inhabited northern and northeastern parts of Syria in Kurdish is called "Kurdistana Binxetê".
[14] (see
Demographics of Syria and
[15]), a large area of south eastern
Turkey is also home to estimated 15 to 20 million
Kurds.
Forests
Although Kurdistan has a harsh and cold climate, it is not a desert. Mountain chains are covered with pasture, and its valleys with forests. There are around 16 million hectares (160,000 km²) of forests in all parts of Kurdistan.
Firs, other
conifers, and
oaks can be found in those forests. Deciduous
platanus,
willow, and
poplar trees are found near waters and rivers
.
Mountains
Mountains, even to this day, have been important geographical and symbolic figures in Kurdish life, so that there is a saying that ''Kurds have no friends but the mountains''
[16]. The
Mount Judi is the most important mountain in Kurdish folklore and along with
Mount Ararat, as one of them is thought to be the final resting place of
Noah's Ark. Other important mountains of Kurdistan are
Zagros Shingar, Qendil, Shaho, Gabar, etc.
Rivers
There are many rivers in Kurdistan that are at least as important, if not more important, than oil. The plateaus and mountains of Kurdistan, which are characterized by heavy rainfall and in winter a heavy coat of snow, are a water reservoir for the Near and Middle East. This is the source of the famous
Tigris and
Euphrates Rivers as well as numerous other smaller rivers like the Khabur, Tharthar, Ceyhan, Araxes, Kura, Sefidrud, Karkha, and Hezil, the major tributaries of which spring from the mountains of Kurdistan. Those rivers that are entirely or nearly entirely in Kurdistan are usually of historical importance to the Kurds. Among these are the Murat (Arasān) and Buhtān rivers in northern and western Kurdistan (in Turkey); the Peshkhābur, the Lesser and the Greater Zab, and the Sirwan/Diyala in central Kurdistan (in Iraq); and the Jaghatu (Zarrinarud), the Tātā'u (Siminarud), the Zohāb (Zahāb), and the Gāmāsiyāb in southern Kurdistan.
With their water, the Tigris and the Euphrates give life not only to the
Mesopotamian plain and the whole of Kurdistan but also to Iraq and Syria. These rivers, which flow down from heights of three to four thousand meters above sea level, are also very significant for the production of energy. Iraq and Syria have built numerous dams across these rivers and their tributaries. The most important ones are a series of dams that were built by Turkey as part of the GAP project (Southeast Anatolia Project). The
GAP project is still not complete, but it already supplies a significant proportion of Turkey's electrical-energy needs. Due to the extraordinary archæological richness of the land, almost any dam built in Kurdistan drowns a portion of Kurdish history
[17].
Lakes
Kurdistan extends to
Lake Urmia in Iran on the east and to semi-contiguous Kurdish-inhabited regions to the west on the
Mediterranean shore. The region includes
Lake Van, the largest body of water in
Turkey; in the entire
Middle East, the only larger lake is Lake Urmia -- but Lake Urmia is not nearly as deep, so Lake Van contains a much larger volume of water. The
Zarivar Lake west of
Marivan, as well as
Lake Dukan near the city of
Sulaymaniyah, are significant tourist sites
.
Underground resources
There are many oil and mineral resources in Kurdistan. KRG-controlled parts of
Iraqi Kurdistan only by itself is estimated to have around 45bn barrels of oil reserves making it sixth largest in the world, mostly recently discovered. Extraction of these reserves is said to begin within the first three months of
2007. These are excluding those of Kirkuk and Mosul, cities claimed by the KRG to be included in its territory, though in these two cities oil was extracted predominantly by Iraq's former Baath regime.
As of July 2007 the Kurdish government is inviting foreign companies to invest in 40 new oil sites, with the hope of increasing regional oil production over the next half decade by a factor of five, to about 1 million barrels per day.
[18] Gas and associated gas reserves are in excess of 100
TCF. Other underground resources that exist in significant quantities in the region include
copper,
iron,
zinc and
limestone which is used to produce
cement. The world's largest deposit of rock sulphur is located just southwest of
Erbil (Hewlêr). Other important underground resources include
coal,
gold, and
marble.
[19].
Subdivisions
Iraqi Kurdistan
The Kurdistan Region was originally established in 1970 as the ''Kurdish Autonomous Region'' following the agreement of an Autonomy Accord between the government of
Iraq and leaders of the Iraqi
Kurdish community. A Legislative Assembly was established in the city of
Arbil with theoretical authority over the Kurdish-populated
governorates of
Arbil,
Dahuk and
As Sulaymaniyah. In practice, however, the assembly created in 1970 was under the control of Iraqi President
Saddam Hussein until the 1991 uprising against his rule following the end of the
Persian Gulf War. Concerns for Safety of Kurdish refugees was reflected in the
United Nations Security Council Resolution 688 which gave birth to a ''safe haven'', in which allied air power protected a Kurdish zone inside Iraq.
[20] While the no-fly zone covered
Dohuk and
Irbil, it left out
Sulaimaniya and
Kirkuk. Then following several bloody clashes between Iraqi forces and Kurdish troops, an uneasy and shaky balance of power was reached, and the Iraqi government withdrew its military and other personnel from the region in October 1991. At the same time, Iraq imposed an economic blockade over the region, reducing its oil and food supplies.
[21] The region thus gained ''de facto'' independence, being ruled by the two principal Kurdish parties – the
Kurdish Democratic Party and the
Patriotic Union of Kurdistan – outside the control of
Baghdad. The region has its own flag and
National Anthem.
Elections held in June 1992 produced an inconclusive outcome, with the assembly divided almost equally between the two main parties and their allies. During this period, the Kurds were subjected to a double
embargo: one imposed by the
United Nations on Iraq and one imposed by
Saddam Hussein on their region. The severe economic hardships caused by the embargoes fueled tensions between the two dominant political parties:
KDP and
PUK over control of trade routes and resources.
[22] This led to internecine and intra-Kurdish conflict and warfare between 1994 and 1996. After
1996, 13% of the Iraqi oil sales were allocated for Iraqi Kurdistan and this led to a relative prosperity in the region.
[23] Direct
United States mediation, led the two parties to a formal ceasefire in ''Washington Agreement'' in September 1998. It is also argued that the Oil for Food Program from 1997 onward had an important effect on cessation of hostilities.
[24] Kurdish parties joined forces against the Iraqi government in the
Operation Iraqi Freedom in Spring
2003. The Kurdish military forces known as
peshmerga played a key role in the overthrow of the former Iraqi government.
[25]
KDP and PUK have united to form an alliance with several smaller parties, and the Kurdish alliance has 53 deputies in the new Baghdad parliament, while the Kurdish Islamic Union has 5. PUK-leader
Jalal Talabani has been elected President of the new Iraqi administration, while KDP leader
Massoud Barzani is President of the Kurdistan Regional Government.
Main articles: Iraqi Kurdistan
Iranian Kurdistan
Main articles: Iranian Kurdistan
Turkish Kurdistan
Main articles: Turkish Kurdistan
'Turkish Kurdistan' (
Turkish: ''Türkiye Kürdistanı'' or ''Kuzey Kürdistan'' ("Northern Kurdistan") or ''Kuzeybatı Kürdistan''
[3] ("Northwestern Kurdistan"),
Kurdish: ''Kurdistana Tirkiyê''
[4] or ''Bakurê Kurdistanê''
[5] ("North of Kurdistan")) is an unofficial name for the southeastern part of
Turkey, densely inhabited by
Kurds. As the 1965 census, which is the last Turkish census with the language question, shows the 7,07% of the Turkish citizens speak Kurdish,
[26] total Kurdish population of the area is estimated 3 million, opposed to the total population of 6.608.619
[27]. The area covers about 230,000 km² (88,780 sq mi), or nearly a third of Turkey. It forms part of the wider Kurdish-inhabited region known as
Kurdistan, which encompasses parts of Turkey,
Syria,
Iran and
Iraq.
[28]
The ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'' describes Turkish Kurdistan as covering at least 17
provinces of
Turkey:
Erzincan,
Erzurum,
Kars,
Malatya,
Tunceli,
Elazığ,
Bingöl,
Muş,
Ağrı,
Adıyaman,
Diyarbakır,
Siirt,
Bitlis,
Van,
Şanlıurfa aka Urfa,
Mardin and
Hakkâri, stressing at the same time that "the imprecise limits of the frontiers of Kurdistan hardly allow an exact appreciation of the area."
[7]. Since 1987, four new provinces -
Şırnak,
Batman,
Iğdır and
Ardahan - have been created inside the
Turkish administrative system out of the territory of some of these provinces. The region has no unified administrative identity and the Turkish state rejects the use of the term "Kurdistan" to describe it. In addition to the provinces already mentioned, the region forms part of the wider geographic subdivisions of
Southeastern Anatolia Region (''Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi'') and
Eastern Anatolia Region (''Doğu Anadolu Bölgesi'').
The region forms the south-eastern edge of
Anatolia. It is dominated by high peaks rising to over 3,700m (12,000 ft) and arid mountain plateaux, forming part of the arc of the
Taurus Mountains. It has an extreme
continental climate — hot in the summer, bitterly cold in the winter. Despite this, much of the region is fertile and has traditionally exported grain and livestock to the cities in the plains. The local economy is dominated by
animal husbandry and small-scale
agriculture, with cross-border smuggling (especially of
petroleum) providing a major source of income in the border areas. Larger-scale agriculture and industrial activities dominate the economic life of the lower-lying region around
Diyarbakır, the largest Kurdish-populated city in the region. Elsewhere, however, decades of conflict and high unemployment has led to extensive migration from the region to other parts of Turkey and abroad.
[29]
Conflict and controversy
Main articles: Kurds in Turkey
The incorporation into Turkey of the Kurdish-inhabited regions of eastern
Anatolia was opposed by many Kurds, and has resulted in a long-running separatist conflict in which thousands of lives have been lost. The region saw several major Kurdish rebellions including; the
Koçkiri Rebellion of 1920, the
Sheikh Said Rebellion in 1924, the
Republic of Ararat in 1927, and the
Dersim Rebellion in 1937. These were forcefully put down by the Turkish authorities and the region was declared a closed military area from which foreigners were banned between 1925 and 1965.
In 1983, the Kurdish provinces were placed under martial law in response to the activities of the militant separarist
Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK).
28 An extremely violent
guerrilla war took place through the rest of the 1980s and into the 1990s, in which much of the countryside was evacuated, thousands of Kurdish-populated villages were destroyed and numerous extrajudicial summary executions were carried out by both sides.
29 More than 37,000 people were killed in the violence and hundreds of thousands more were forced to leave their homes.
[30] The situation in the region has since eased following the capture of the PKK leader
Abdullah Öcalan in 1999 and the introduction of a greater degree of official tolerance for Kurdish cultural activities, encouraged by the
European Union.
However, some political violence is still ongoing and the Turkish-Iraqi border region remains tense.
[31]
Climate
The region has an extreme
continental climate — hot in the summer, bitterly cold in the winter. Despite this, much of the region is fertile and has traditionally exported grain and livestock to the cities in the plains. The local economy is dominated by
animal husbandry and small-scale
agriculture, with cross-border smuggling (especially of
petroleum) providing a major source of income in the border areas. Larger-scale agriculture and industrial activities dominate the economic life of the lower-lying region around
Diyarbakır, the largest Kurdish-populated city in the region. Elsewhere, however, decades of conflict and high unemployment has led to extensive migration from the region to other parts of Turkey and abroad.
[29]
There are many rivers flowing and running through mountains of Kurdistan making it distinguished by its fertile lands, plentiful water, and picturesque nature. The mountainous nature of Kurdistan, the difference of temperatures in its various parts, and its wealth of waters, make Kurdistan a land of agriculture and tourism. Because of its high altitude, the climate of Kurdistan is harsh. There is a lot of snowfall in the high mountains. Precipitation varies between 200 and 400 mm a year in the plains, and between 700 and 3,000 mm a year on the high plateaux between mountain chains
.
Views of Kurdistan
See also
★
History of the Kurdish people
★
Turkish Kurdistan
★
Kurds in Turkey
★
Iranian Kurdistan
★
Iraqi Kurdistan
★
Kurds in Syria
★
Kurdistan Okrug
★
Kurdish people
★
List of Kurdish people
★
Kurdish organisations
★
Origins of the Kurds
★
Yazidis
★
Kurdish Jews
★
Kurdish Christians
Notes and references
1. Kurdistan, Encyclopaedia Britannica
2. Iraqi constitution, article 113, 1th
3. William Gordon East, Oskar Hermann Khristian Spate, The Changing Map of Asia: A Political Geography, 1961 - 436 pages, p: 105
4. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16167/16167-h/raw7a.htm
5. J. Bell, ''A System of Geography. Popular and Scientific (A Physical, Political, and Statistical Account of the World and Its Various Divisions)'', pp.133–4, Vol. IV, Fullarton & Co., Glasgow, 1832.
6. J. T. Walker, ''The Legend of Mar Qardagh: Narrative and Christian Heroism in Late Antique Iraq'', 368 pp., University of California Press, ISBN 0520245784, 2006, pp.26, 52
7. http://www.mazdapublishers.com/Sharafnama.htm
8. For a list of these entities see Kurdistan and its native Provincial subdivisions
9. C. Dahlman, ''The Political Geography of Kurdistan'', Eurasian Geography and Economics, Vol.43, No.4, pp.271–299, 2002.
10. C. Dahlman, ''The Political Geography of Kurdistan'', Eurasian Geography and Economics, Vol.43, No.4, pp.274
11. The map presented by the Kurdish League Delegation, March 1945
12. Kurdistan, ''Encyclopædia Britannica''
13. Kurdistan, ''Encyclopædia of Islam'' — ''currently offline''
14. Geographic Distribution of Kurdish and other Iranic Languages,
15. Syria, ''CIA World Factbook''
16. John Bulloch and Harvey Morris, ''No Friends but the Mountains: The Tragic History of the Kurds'', ISBN 0-195-08075-0
17. Economy: Water, ''The Encyclopædia of Kurdistan''
18.
[1]
19. Official statements on the oil and gas sector in the Kurdistan region, Kurdistan Development Corporation
20. L. Fawcett, ''Down but not out? The Kurds in International Politics'', Reviews of International Studies, Vol.27, 2001 p.117
21. M. Leezenberg, ''Iraqi Kurdistan: contours of a post-civil war society'', Third World Quarterly, Vol.26, No.4-5, June 2005, p.636
22. H.J. Barkey, E. Laipson, ''Iraqi Kurds And Iraq's Future'', Middle East Policy, Vol. XII, No.4, Winter 2005, pp.67
23. M. M. Gunter, M. H. Yavuz, ''The Continuing Crisis In Iraqi Kurdistan'', Middle East Policy, Vol. XII, No.1, Spring 2005, pp.123-124
24. M. Leezenberg, ''Iraqi Kurdistan: contours of a post-civil war society'', Third World Quarterly, Vol.26, No.4-5, June 2005, p.639
25. [2]
26. [6]
27. Turkish State Planning Institute data
28. "Kurd." ''The Hutchinson Unabridged Encyclopedia including Atlas'', 2005.
29. Martin van Bruinessen, "Kurdistan." ''The Oxford Companion to the Politics of the World'', 2nd edition. Joel Krieger, ed. Oxford University Press, 2001.
30. "Kurdish rebels kill Turkey troops", BBC News, 8 May 2007
31. "Turkish soldiers killed in blast", BBC News, 24 May 2007
32. Martin van Bruinessen, "Kurdistan." ''The Oxford Companion to the Politics of the World'', 2nd edition. Joel Krieger, ed. Oxford University Press, 2001.
External links
★
Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) News, progress reports and reference material about Kurds, KRG and Kurdistan Region.
★
The Kurdish Institute of Paris Provides news, bulletins, articles and conference information on the situation in Kurdistan.
★
Official Investment Website of Kurdistan
★
Essays on the Origins of Kurdish Nationalism, edited by Abbas Vali
★
The Encyclopedia of Kurdistan
★
Kurds, Kurdistan, The Encyclopaedia of Islam.
★
Troubled Times - A Brief History Of Kurdistan
★
A dozen maps of Kurdistan by
GlobalSecurity.org
★
"Turkey renames 'divisive' animals" BBC News 8 March2005
★
A number of pictures from historical attractions in Kurdistan
★
Calls for freedom make the jigsaw of Europe more complicated than ever (Kurdistan in 2010s) [8][9]
★
VivaKurdistan - The World´s biggest Kurdish community!
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